Earticle

Amidst of liturgical music, psalm-singing or psalmody has a long tradition, not to mention synagogue service at the time of Jesus. This paper explores how the liturgical psalm-singing has been played in worship, thereby interacting with people’s real lives. With theological reflection on music and worship in the early church, this paper examines the appearance of psalmody in the church, observing how the church played it and how the way of singing psalms has been transmitted in the Protestant tradition, from the perspective of full, active, and conscious participation in liturgy. In conclusion, therefore, the issue from the early church is revisited: how we make liturgical music sacred― neither secular nor profane, hence achieving “full, active, and conscious participation in liturgy.”

This dissertation examines the preaching ministry of W. A. Criswell focusing on his use of aurality in expository preaching. Emerging in the late twentieth century, Criswell proves to be a key figure in both establishing the faith and core theology of Baptists. The subsequent series of events of the preacher would eventually lead him to become skilled in aural listening. Through three distinct elements, his course of life in relation to ministry is explored in great detail. First, it discusses the reason why Criswell was selected as the theme of the paper. Second, it examines the factors that shaped Criswell as an expository preacher and how his unique preaching style distinguished him from other SBC preachers of the time. Finally, this dissertation concludes with an original examination of how Criswell’s use of aurality through text-driven preaching has contributed toward his influence in the SBC, to the influence of the SBC, and eventually to the making of a lasting impression in the world of homiletics. His sermons are still examined and used by preachers today, giving way to the idea that his impact is significant and well-known due to the prevalent usage of aurality within such sermons.

Humans live by experiencing various types of sufferings. For this reason, it is evident that one of the topics of great interest in congregations is the question of suffering. The study aims to classify and examine the various types of suffering in order to effectively preaching on suffering, and to present a homiletical theodicy by discerning, and synthesizing the arguments of each theodicy. The detailed contents of this study are mainly composed of three parts. First, this paper will classify and examine the various types of suffering first according to the causes, scope, and theological purpose. One of the important things for preachers who preach on suffering is to understand it properly. This study will provide assistance to preachers so that they may preach on suffering in an effective manner by providing categorization of suffering. Second, this paper will examine various theodicies regarding suffering. Philosophers and religious intellectuals have proposed different answers to the issue of suffering. In this study, the writer will briefly review the arguments of these different theodicies and discuss how to effectively preach the theological positions of each theodicy in the sermon. Third, this paper will present a homiletical theodicy and explain it in detail. In particular, the writer will present a homiletical theodicy based on the basic elements of the meta-narrative, and the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Homiletical theodicy based on this meta-narrative can provide the audience with Christian perspectives on suffering. This homiletical theodicy might also provide preachers with insight as to what should be considered when preaching on suffering.

The research on mysticism in Protestant spiritualities is still in the beginning stage. In this paper, I have examined the process of Thomas Uphams' appropriation of Madame Guyon's mysticism and some concerns in the interpretation on mystical experiences. Phoebe Palmer guided Upham to have spiritual experiences starting from conversion and assessed them as a model case of experiencing entire sanctification in the Wesleyan term. However, Upham had conflicts with Palmer regarding his interpretation on the death of the will or self-annihilation, which are elements of divine union. He found the appropriate explanation of his inner experience in the writings of Madame Guyon and used Madame Guyon's thoughts on self-annihilation and divine union. Upham contributed to Protestant spirituality by appropriating Madame Guyon's mystical experiences to the Holiness movement. Upham's case shows the serious influence of Madame Guyon's spiritual experiences on Protestant spirituality and mysticism. By Upham, mystical experiences were tried to be interpreted as a Protestant theological term such as entire sanctification. Upham's position was somewhat dubious but seems to have a role of bridge between Guyon and Palmer. In this paper, first, I describe Upham's experience of sanctification and his interest in mysticism. Then, I explore Upham's appropriation of Madame Guyon's mystical experiences shown in her writings and his conflicts with Phoebe Palmer regarding his deviant position on entire sanctification.

Dorothy Day is unfamiliar to the Korean Protestant Church. However, her name is not unfamiliar to the Roman Catholic Church, the theology of laity, and contemporary spiritual theology. Dorothy Day (1897-1980) was a Roman Catholic journalist and social activist. Through her writings, practical life, and her leadership of the Catholic worker lay movement, she gave a new model of spirituality for those of us who live in modern times. In this study, I will deal with key aspects of the spirituality of Dorothy Day and explore its relevance for Christian education. Her spirituality through her devoted life suggests to us a new paradigm, practical spirituality in context. Not only did she see inner spirituality as a personal mystical experience, but she also emphasized the collective power of community as Christ’s body in this earthly world. On this point, we can find several contact points in Day’s practical spirituality which should apply to Christian education. Thus, in this study, I will explain the characteristics of her spirituality and find points to apply to Christian education. The following is the structure of the study. After introductory part( chapter I), in chapter II, I will briefly summarize Dorothy Day’s life and spiritual journey. In chapter III, in more detail, I will explore the key aspects of Dorothy Day’s spirituality. In chapter IV, I will try to apply Dorothy Day’s spirituality to the Christian educational fields.

In this research, I inquire into how and why the descriptions of a revolutionary God who acts in behalf of the weak and needy would contribute to the expansion of authentic thanksgiving. The Song of Hannah shows the general pattern of thanksgiving, which is made up of Outcry―God’s response―Thanksgiving. However, its description of a revolutionary God for the weak and needy, which seems to be rarely found in thanksgiving, paradoxically plays a significant role in making this Song an authentic song of thanksgiving. In the ritual context, the God who turns things upside down is beneficial for both the thanks-givers and the suffered. The theme of a revolutionary God in the Song of Hannah promotes the expansion of thanksgiving among Christians by encouraging their participation in both communal lament and thanksgiving. Considering the Song of Hannah as being full of witness to God’s revolutionary activities, I propose that communal thanksgiving using this Song will encourage interpersonal dynamics within the community and its spiritual transformation. The Song of Hannah presents the move from personal thanksgiving to a broader horizon, i.e., the ongoing activity of God in behalf of the weak and needy. Including the activities of God for the weak in their communal thanksgiving will regenerate the additional dynamic following the general pattern of Outcry―God’s Response― Thanksgiving. Through interpersonal dynamics within the communal worship context, both thanks-givers and the suffered would experience the Song of Hannah as a revelatory text that provides new meaning and the expansion of thanksgiving among them.

This thesis is the result of a pastoral theology study for the liberation of women who are discriminated against and oppressed in Korean Christianity and churches, which are characterized as patriarchal, and restore their human rights. Most of the previous studies on women's oppression and discrimination so far started with the basic premise of the frame of ‘male who oppress women’, that is, ‘male vs. female’ sex confrontation structure. However, in this thesis, i studied the problem of women's oppression and discrimination in the church, not with the structure of gender confrontation, but with the frame of ‘ruler vs. victim’. Although many efforts have been made for the liberation of women in Korean Christianity and churches from the past to the present, discrimination and oppression against women in them still persists. This, of course, may be due to the misapplication of the methodology or the lack of a will to emancipate women. However, the cause of this problem may have been misdiagnosed from the start. That's why it is worth wondering at least once that this problem is not being solved. I thought that it was necessary to try to approach the cause of this problem from various dimensions, moving away from the simple ‘fixed structure of men and women’ on women's oppression and discrimination. One of them is the structure of ‘ruler vs. victim.’ I hope this thesis contributes to solving the problem of oppression and discrimination against women in the Korean Christianity and in the church.

In this study, I critically apply theories of Kohut’s self psychology concerning self-selfobject relationships to the Korean uri culture, and refine them by integrating Korean psychological constructs into his frameworks. Kohut claims that the psychology of the self in the broad sense can offer a fuller explanation than the psychology of the self in the narrow sense. For Kohut, the self is an independent center of initiative and an independent recipient of impression, which is subjectively experienced as being continuous in time and space, and not simply a representation. This concept of the self defined by Kohut as a supraordinate agency, i.e., an independent center of initiative, closely reflects the western concern for the autonomous, independent, and cohesive self. Korean culture can be categorized as one of the collectivistic cultures. One of the consistent themes associated with collectivism is an emphasis on the collective or group over individuals. I propose the Korean concept of uri as a more integral framework for discourse on Koran collectivism along with jeong. In the uri culture, the Korean self can be characterized by its symbiosis-reciprocity, particularly in jeong, which is the most important part of the Korean conception of self. In Korean uri relations, maeum is the most important medium of interaction, since uri members can communicate through their maeum on the basis of jeong even without verbal expression of it. In this sense, self-selfobject relationships in the Korean culture can be significantly different from the formulations in self psychology. Korean self-selfobject relationships are reciprocal, which contrasts with the formulations of self psychology. This kind of reciprocal self-selfobject relationship, i.e., reciprocal expectations of being caring and being dependent, can frequently be found within uri relations. The need for a psychology of self-selfobject relationships arises in Northern American culture, but Korean culture traditionally assumes self-selfobject relationships as the core of humanity, though this assumption is not grounded in the frameworks of self psychology. Therefore, the notion of self and selobject as formulated by self psychology needs to be expanded in line with the experience of the self and self-selfobject relationships of Korean people.

The lack of communication with the wider social context and the persistent problem of one-sided communication are the challenges facing the church today. To borrow Pual Knitter’s words, this problem may lie on the fact that Korean Christianity is built on the total replacement model. Within this frame of mind, Christians listen to religious others only to replace them with Christianity. However, when we take globalization into our consideration, Korean churches need to be equipped for the new landscape in which their potential congregants live. More religious as well as cultural diversity exists today in South Korea than a generation ago. The possibility of encountering religious others as clients is wide open. When I take globalization into consideration, it becomes a more mind-boggling question as to how I can initiate I-Thou relationships with religious others. In this study, I will look into some ways to bring about transformation within the context of interreligious care and counseling based on my personal experience. What I want to accomplish through this study is to explore ways for spiritual care and counseling to be transformative, particularly in an interreligious care and counseling setting. I attempt to investigate the usefulness of the RCT model for interreligious spiritual care and counseling settings in light of the wisdom of scholars’ endeavors in interreligious dialogue. I am drawn to the RCT model as opposed to traditional Freudian theory, especially for the interreligious care and counseling setting. Here, I would like to expound how the RCT model puts an emphasis on mutuality between counselors and counselees by reconceptualizing the meaning of countertransference. Mutuality within the RCT model will be discussed with Martin Buber’s I-Thou framwork and John Gottman’s relationship theory. In addition, I will look into the necessity of interreligious counselors and those they counsel developing a differentiated self. I wish we Christian counselors and ministers could value and further celebrate the otherness of religious others in our care settings. Then, spiritual care and counseling could be life-giving and transformative.

The purpose of this study is to help persons who are economically exploited and who are oppressed by the malignant social system such as sexism, classism, materialism in pastoral care and church ministry. With the question how pastoral caregivers go beyond the limited scope of counseling to the roles of liberating those who are slaves of pathological society and economic system, I have an insight from Graham’s psychosystemic theory. In order to approach both to the people and the world of suffering, I emphasize transforming power which comes from reciprocal interplay between the psyche of individuals and their socioeconomic context. Exploring the political, social, and cultural backgrounds of suffering individuals can never be separated from the process of understanding the inner world. Rather, the more we explore the background of the individuals, the more a new world of possibilities for change and resistance against evil system and ideology that is oppressed in our inner world opens up. This study reveals that churches should become the place of compassionate resistance against evil systme and influence in this corrupted world. Congregations also need to have sympathy and solidarity with the vulnerable people. Within the topic of neoliberalism and its impacts on human life, I examine several subjects: economically vulnerabily, neoliberalism, psychosystemic theory and implications in the pastoral care and church ministry. I develop my arguments, first, with the concept of psychosystemic theory in pastoral care and counseling which helps ministers and pastoral caregivers not to ignore social and political problems. Second, I develop a socioeconomic understanding of the human life in the context of neoliberal world. Then, in the third part of the research, I search a theological interpretation of the meaning of care in the context of the society of overheated competition and fatigue. Lastly, I suggests several implications for the pastoral care and the church ministry.

The purpose of this paper is to provide intercultural pastoral counseling for Korean PKs who experience shame. This study focuses on degrees of Korean PKs’s shame experiences, challenges by cultural differences in counseling. Intercultural pastoral counseling toward Korean PKs is the approach that is to understand the importance of different cultures, to respect the unique relationships that exist between Korean PKs and their culture within which they are formed. In this study, I explored psychological and pastoral theological perspectives of shame in order to understand Korean PKs’ shame experience through interviewing three Korean adults who were children of Korean pastors. Through the study from psychological and pastoral theological perspectives about shame, I see that the relationship between parent and children provides a very important basis for shame. The negative experiences of shame in PK are based on the unempathic attitudes of their parents and their congregations. When we understand shame in the relationship between parent and children, shame is reconstructed and our theology which brings about shame also can be revised. When parents use empathy toward their child and when congregations use empathy toward PK, PK can be less stressful and happier. When our pastoral theology attempts to understand human beings before judging them, our sinful or shameful feelings can be lessened. When many Korean PKs showed inappropriate behaviors and thought, they often blamed themselves because of the important interrelationship between their behavior and their families. When Korean PKs are recognized by others positively, they seemed to believe that their behavior and thought are helpful and appropriated. For the same reason, they also experience shame when they believe that certain of their behaviors were not appropriated to maintain their father’s face. In order to provide effective counseling for Korean PKs, intercultural counseling try to appreciate value and differences of Korean PKs by which they are unique.

This study's purpose is to consider the biblical perspective of spiritual resilience- i.e., the ability to recover from spiritual suffering-and to outline its components. To this end, the study examines the definitions and characteristics of spiritual distress that have already been identified and then proposed new components of spiritual resilience as the ability to recover from spiritual distress. The study found that spiritual suffering lies at the heart of all suffering, often including a sense of disconnection from God, meaninglessness. Spiritual resilience can be defined as the capacity required to alleviate spiritual suffering, an essential capacity that must be cultivated by saints existing in a corrupt world of depravity. Spiritual resilience is based on two forms of knowledge: knowledge of God and an understanding of the suffering from a biblical perspective. Knowledge of God includes the image of God in the Bible, God who knows our suffering, and God who comforts us on the last day. Understanding pain from a biblical point of view involves understanding pain through the doctrines of creation, depravity, and redemption, discovering the meaning of pain as a process of sanctification, and perceiving suffering as the process of full recovery to come. Based on these two forms of underlying knowledge, the capacity of spiritual resilience made up of intellectual, emotional, and willful internal competencies and the capacity of the faith community, external competency. Finally, this study recommends a specific application of the concept of spiritual resilience in Christian education and counseling.

This paper aims to explore biblical interpretations of Jeong, Korean emotional attachment and to seek for its pastoral implications in the Korean cultural context. For this study, I employ a literature review method as a research methodology and I bring the Asian paradigm reading biblical texts that the Dr. Kwok Pui-Lan, a Chinese-American theologian emphasizes on universal authority of the Bible and autonomy in interpreting the Scripture. The intimate and compassionate relationship between Ruth and Naomi and between the father and the prodigal son can be interpreted as Jeong-filled relationships because of their experience of attachment, in-group identity, co-existence of gentle and hateful emotions, and the sharing of Simjeong. An positive association of Jeong and empathy might be an effective resource in offering pastoral counseling and in caring people. Korean the balanced and integrated understanding of the association of Jeong with empathy matters for Korean pastoral counselors and care-givers.

The topic of human uniqueness has been a crucial issue in various academic domains. In theology, what is meant by human uniqueness is closely related to the core idea of the Imago Dei. The history of interpretation as it relates to the image of God in theology can be summarized within three broad categories: substantive, functional, and relational. However, isolated theological notions of human uniqueness have often been distorted by human pride, arrogance, and hostility to other creatures on earth. In the current study, we will explore a more embodied and holistic meaning of the human uniqueness through a dynamic conversation between paleoanthropology, evolutionary epistemology, neuroscience, and theology. The emergence of the symbolic mind and the cognitive fludity has assisted humanity in having religious experiences, performing religious rituals, and carrying out religious norms and values, marking homo sapiens as "homo-religious." However, a holistic comprehension of human uniqueness as within the Imago Dei cannot be encapsulated purely within the biological or neuroscientific. A dialogue with theologian Abraham Heschel, and particularly his notion of transcendence and becoming human in the divine likeness, can help us craft a theological meaning of human uniqueness. Religiously constructed values, goals, and expectations are built into the structure of interpreting daily events and motivating self-transcendence. The essentially interactive embodied human mind, functioning as a "mindedness of behavior in context," promotes humans to seek out meaning in life and pursue the good. This article will argue that the human being is more than being: being human is becoming human in the image of God by self-transcendance overcoming current limitation through exercising divine living. Based on a more dynamic and holistic notion of human uniqueness, it is also claimed that Christian education should promote transformation of the whole being beyond narrow intellectualism by the act of pursuing and becoming the divine likeness.

This article aims to provide new insights for resolving adolescents' Moralistic Therapeutic Deism, which remains problems in youth ministry. It presents an approach to Christian education to solve Moralistic Therapeutic Deism that is evident among mainline Protestant and Catholic teenagers but is also visible in other religious types of teens and even many non-religious youth in America. Moralistic Therapeutic Deism has become the dominant civil religion in America. It is the actual de facto functional religious faith of the majority of teens, regardless of their official affiliation. The problems with Moralistic Therapeutic Deism are that it tends to seek individual happiness as the highest goal in life, self-love and self-acceptance as the keys to achieving that happiness, and an amorphous faith in a unique God. Moralistic Therapeutic Deism is penetrating into youth in our worshipping community, and we must help them awake from the invasion of Moralistic Therapeutic Deism and rethink Christian tradition and practices, which make Christianity distinct from Moralistic Therapeutic Deism. This study has important implications for the theological practical application of youth ministry, which could solve the Moralistic Therapeutic Deism. It seeks to provide adolescents, who have bought into Moralistic Therapeutic Deism, anchors for the true Christian faith from a Christian theological perspective. In the course of exploring its deeper meaning, it will first discuss the harm of Moralistic Therapeutic Deism as the first phase to resolving the impacts of Moralistic Therapeutic Deism in the Christian life, especially for today’s teenagers, generally. Drawing on the insights of Christian practice, it will also explore how we could fix Moralistic Therapeutic Deism based on several key theological normative doctrines. Then, it will suggest the solution of Moralistic Therapeutic Deism for the youth group in Grace Church based on understanding its ministry. It is hope that it helps guide what Grace Church needs to do with Moralistic Therapeutic Deism in the present and the future.

With rapid globalization, various forms of citizenship education, peace education, environment education and development education are clustering under the umbrella of what is known as “Global Citizenship Education” (GCED). However, this does not mean that there is consensus on approaches or curricula, due to inevitable differences between traditions, histories, worldviews, cultures and aims. As a result, for instance, some versions of GCED focus on neoliberalism aimed at fostering global competency for better economic opportunities for future generations, while other versions are focused on decolonizing the international system, establishing justice, or democratization. With the world experiencing a global pandemic that has laid bare the self-interest of many nations, this paper discusses the legitimacy and methodology of the Christian approach to GCED based on a review of the literature. Biblical values provide practical wisdom and leadership in each category of global citizenship education, including social justice, globalization, environmental issues, diversity issues, and conflict. However, in constructing a more comprehensive educational framework of global citizenship, faith communities are perceived to be disengaged and lacking leadership. This paper provides a rationale for a call to Christian communities to realize the Bible’s sufficiency and respond to the Cultural Mandate and the great commandment to love thy neighbor through active participation in GCED based on the spirit of shalom.

The purpose of this paper is to understand the preaching theory and theology of Donald Owens, the first missionary of the Church of the Nazarene in Korea. Before coming to Korea as a missionary, Owens graduated from Bethany-Peniel Nazarene College in the Midwest area of the United States, and was sent to Korea as a missionary while serving in Nebraska. Owens, who first set foot on Korean soil in May 1954, served as a missionary in Korea until the spring of 1965 before returning to the United States for his second sabbatical. Owens' work as the founder of the Nazarene Theological Institute in Korea, the first Korean missionary, pastor and administrator is an important part of understanding the early history of the Church of the Nazarene in Korea. In particular, Owens' preaching ministry and preaching teaching are essential for understanding the early sermons of the Korean Church of the Nazarene and the preaching ministry of the first generation pastors of the Nazarene Church in Korea. Owens' sermon emphasized inner holiness and the experience of the grace of the Holy Spirit based on American revivalism and Wesley's holiness theology. Because of this, the preaching theology of the Church of the Nazarene in Korea emphasized Wesley's holiness theology and the spiritual revival movement. While studying Owens' preaching theology, the conviction that the researcher has is that the preaching on spiritual awakening and Christian holiness based on Wesley's holiness theology should be more emphasized in the 21st century Korean church today. For this, more research on the theology of preaching in the 21st century is needed, and while inheriting and developing the legacy of the past, it is necessary to develop a more evangelical and creative Christian preaching theology for the new era.

This study intends to find missional leadership in the pneumatological perspective by focusing on bibllical, historical, missiological and theological appraoches. God send us to His mission fields and He is also doing mission with us. Missional church is about the nature and purpose of the church. The church is sending public spheres as well as individual people as an alternative community. For this reason, the missional leaders also needs to fulfill the public calling in their public and social roles for mission and evangelism in the Holy Spirit. In this study, I concentrate on a biblical, historical, missiological and theological understanding of the missional leadership through the Holy Spirit. I attempt to deal with the concept of ‘missional church in the missiological perspective. The mission of Trintarian God is crucial for practicing missional church leadership because the Son and the Spirit through the Father are doing mission as missionary God. In the Bible, Jesus’ Great commission is fulfilled in the Holy Spirit. Harry R. Boer recognizes the Great Commission and missions on Pentecost. Roland Allen is an great model of practicing missionary task in the doctrine of the Spirit as a missionary. Craig Van Gelder also develops a biblical and historical approach for a missional ecclesiology in the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit encourages the missional church leaders to fulfill God’s redemptive reign in the world. Theologically, Jürgen Moltmann’s pneumatology is important for understanding missional church leadership through the Holy Spirit. He deals with the Church in the Power of the Holy Spirit: 1) the church of Jesus Christ, 2) the missionary church, 3) ecumenical church, and 4) the political church. The missionary church emphasizes “Missio Dei in the Trinitarian history.”

The New Normal Era refers to a new standard era in which things that were considered abnormal become normal. The transition to a new normal society is macroscopically reorganizing the world order and changing the landscape of the citizens' life world. This phenomenon seems to continue to occur in the church and in the life of faith. The church is experiencing changes in worship such as online worship or Drive-In Worship is taking place due to the suspension of on-site worship services on Sunday, which is the first in a Korean church. Although on-site worship is being resumed, the church is changing into a digital pastoral platform by establishing an online worship system in parallel with offline worship and opening a YouTube channel. These changes will become the inevitable pastoral capabilities that the church must have after Corona. What is the pastor's response to the corona crisis? This study aims to study the method with a focus on the future church theory, and to reconsider the characteristics of worship, sermon, and evangelism suggested by emerging churches, and to suggest methods for pastoral leadership in Korean churches to cope with. The way to deal with the corona crisis may differ slightly depending on the ministry site and target, but there will be alternative methods for everyone. However, the most important solution will be change. Therefore, this study intends to examine the changes and responses of the Korean church in the Corona New Normal Era. For the study, first, the need for change in the post-corona church is discussed, second, the characteristics of the future church are presented through prior research, and third, the challenges faced by the leadership of the Korean church are considered. Next, the study presents the factors that should change the leadership of the church, and finally, the study intends to suggest the changing factors of the leadership of the pastor.

This critical review essay provides a substantive comparison for the struggles of indigenous peoples without their sovereignty by analyzing and critically comparing the political theology of George Tinker and Naim Ateek. By evaluating the theological reflection from Tinker and Ateek, in dealing with suffering from dislocation and occupation of the native peoples by Westerners and Zionists, this paper stresses the importance of the socio-political values of liberation theology for the expelled people from their own land, offering a new, politically sensitive approach to the notion of sovereignty. The ideas presented by Ateek and Tinker offer important resources for conceptualizing the sovereignty of indigenous communities. This comparative study considers two questions: First, what alternative notion of state sovereignty might engage, in context, religious values as an alternative to the modern system of nation-state (the Westphalian system) built on political realism and global power politics? Second, which political theology provides the notion of indigenous sovereignty critically evaluating today's nation-state system built on the notion of utipossedetis and ethnic inequalities. These questions are considered by a study of the theological meanings of modern state sovereignty systems, as compared to God's sovereignty for all people and an entire creation as the realm of God. The answers to both questions offer an alternative to current, modern nationalism.

This paper aims to unveil women’s agency in ecclesiastical structure and so many Biblical and historical written records in Early Christianity, reclaiming it in Korean Christianity today. It explores women’s leadership issues through historical consciousness of Roman gender ideology impact on early Christian communities. During the formative period of early Christianity (1st - 5th century), women leaders were present, and carried out ministerial and leadership functions. Yet, accounts of Christian history have largely marginalized the presence and contributions of women, often directly reinforcing the suppression of women’s leadership in pastoral ministry through to the contemporary context. Even though early Christianity was grown in part by the contribution of so many women leaders’ commitment, the church intentionally omitted their participation and/or distorted their roles and images as it developed church structures in ways that have limited women’s leadership and authority, excluding women from ordination and some roles in church ministry. The invisibility of women’s leadership in the historical record can be understood through an examination of the socio-theological-philosophical contexts of gender ideology in Roman society. The dualistic gender hierarchy of the Roman gender ideological system strongly influenced and shaped the patriarchalization of the Christian church as the church began to be institutionalized in the early centuries of its development. Many early church fathers from the 2nd to 5th centuries who were uncomfortable with women’s leadership utilized their writings as a platform to oppress women in ministry. The controversy over the apostleship of Mary Magdalene is one of the exemplary cases illustrating how male leaders in early Christianity attempted to exclude women. Additionally, the church has developed its structure in ways to limit women’s authority, excluding women from ordination and roles in pastoral ministry. With this historical consciousness, it is important to recognize that this oppressive gender ideology continues to maintain the unequal treatment of women leaders in current Korean Christian ministry.