Earticle

In this paper I review the research trends in Korean Keonkuk myths(建國神話) during the period covering from Japanese occupation in 1920s up until now. Based on the review, I propose the future research directions in this research area. Although my review is grounded on the research tradition in Keonkuk myths, I do not simply enumerate and describe past studies in historical sequence but instead critically review them according to major points of debate or issues. In this way, one can understand the issues that have been emphasized in research tradition and the resulting problems to be resolved. A careful study of books dealing with Keonkuk myths reveals that it is only the recent time when all Keonkuk myths are completely documented in one single book. I classify the research trends into four categories and examine each of the four categories : 1) research focusing on contents or typology, 2) research dealing with structural features, formation and reformation, meaning and symbols of Keonkuk myths, 3) research comparing with myths of other countries such as Japan, China, or Manchu, or showing the correlation with Korean 'musok myth(巫俗神話), 4) research dealing with individual Keonkuk myths of different times such as 'Tangun Myth', 'Zumong Myth'. Finally, I present the future directions of research on Keonkuk myths. I assert 1) more materials need to be collected and compiled, 2) more research efforts should be exerted regarding the process of reformation and transmission to the next generation, 3) our own theory on Korean Keonkuk myths should be established, and 4) general and unique feature of korean Keonkuk myths need to be identified through comparison of ours with those of other East Asian people.

The Korean oral myths, represented by myths on shamans and village protecting gods, are alive and transforming as the peoples who transmit them relate in their lives.The oral myths, unlike the myths on national founders that are fixed in text reflect the social and cultural conditions of the people who transmit them, thus demonstrate their transformational phases. The literature survey on oral myths which started from 1920s laid a foundation for the research in oral myths and developed in relation to the oral literature research.It has now accumulated a considerable amount of research results. The focused studies on oral myths were carried out after 1960s by some scholars of Korean literature who recognized the relationship between the oral myth literature and recorded literature.The studies done in this area can be categorized as following; 1) classification, 2) the origin and history,3)literature: type, structure, literature history, 4) context of myth transmission, function of myth 5) comparative study, 6)feministic research The literature survey on oral-myth-study shows that the following efforts need to be carried out; 1)seek for more creative way to search, conserve and utilize materials, 2)reevaluate the concepts and categories of myths and provide the foundation for discussion on myth research, 3)eliminate the research bias, change the direction of research, 4)find out the mechanism of myth formation. It is noted that the above mentioned issues are being discussed and addressed by Korean scholars and the development of original theories which can serve as foundation for the study on mythology of Eastern Asia is foreseeable.

In this paper, we made a figure about the history of studying Chinese myth. We also criticized the problems originated from Orientalism and Sinocentrism. First, we argued non-existence of cosmogony, non-existence of systematic myth, three division of narrative originated from Orientalism and centeral origin, broad-meaning mythology, cultural territorism originated from Sinocentrism. East Asian mythology did not yet get its own status in the world mythology. we have to reestablish East Asian mythology overcoming above mythological biases. And so we suggest 'the mythology of transgression' to orthodox mythology. this mythology does not belong to any trend of orthodox mythology, so we can call it 'The third mythology'. This time, the globlization make serious the monopoly of imagination by the 1st world. In this point, 'the mythology of transgression' based on East Asian mythology will have a meaning as an effective cultural resistance.

Mythology of minority race in china is a very important area in the study of chinese mythology. However, it has not been considered to be important until 1980's when the chinese government recognized the importance of minority race and tried to collect and arrange several mythology data ofminority race in china as a means to integrate several races in china. Based on these efforts, lots of searches has been accomplished in the comparative view point with Han races mythology. Recently, the interest about the mythology of minority race is increasing, so that regional study such as west-south or east-north is on progress. And also theres are another attempts to study mythology of minority race individually or subjectively in detail. But the mythology of minority racestill has lots of works to be developed and mythology of china is mainly focused on Han races mythology, thesearch as a prototype of east-asia mythology and the comparative study with east-asia mythology and with world mythology is still in the very low level. In this study, we noticed that the study and discussion with mythology of minority race in china is not established yet. We reviewed some existing data of mythology of minority race in china and tried historic and total analysis for that study results during the past. Also we checked some important arguing issues in mythology of minority race in china. Especially in the last part, we reviewed some problems to be solved for the establishment of identity and right direction study of mythology of minority race. We also reviewed future study directions worthwhile that can be summarized by the following 4 view points. First, the preceding issue in the study of mythology of minority race in china should exclude political trends such as Sino-centerism centered on Han races in the past or newly emerging new Sino-centerism that can effect. And to establish right mind of meaning and importance of the study of mythology of minority race. Second, we need to review the credibilityof the existing data and also the newly established mythology data that was collected by the literature collection project of the minority races in china in the 1980's. Third, mythology of minority race in the past was mainly progressed among minority races orbetween Han races, but now we need to expand the comparative study ranging to east-asia countries such as Korea and Japan etc. and also with the mythology of western countries and make a background to establish the identity of mythology of minority race. Fourth, we suggested the future study direction of mythology of minority race in Korea. (1) The interpretation of the original version of mythology of minority race and the necessity of analysis job. (2) Continuous interest about the mythology of Korean race in China (3) The mythology study area focused on in east-north so far should be extended to west-south mythology of minority race in china

The comparative research on the myth of Korea and Japan was mostly conducted on the areas of cultural phylogeny.That is the reason why there are a lot of similarities in the myth of both countries.Many people think that it is the result of the exchange of culture and human resources as well as conquests.This research method, however, has some problems.For example, this method focuses only on similarity, and cannot find any distinctiveness.To focus only similarity has flaws which make impossible to separate conquest and cultural exchange. It is necessary to enlarge the materials and areas in order to overcome this problem.Since mythological stories handed down orally are actively exhumed, it needs to compare legend as well as documents.In addition, it is essential not to limit the areas to the Japanese mainland, but to expand to Ryukyu in Okinawa, and to Ainu in Hokkaido.In this backdrop, the comparative research will include more various mythological themes than just literature-centered materials. In addition, it is necessary to seek distinctiveness together with similarity. The ultimate purpose of the comparative mythology studies the university and the particularity.When these researches are conducted well, it is possible to compare the speculative system as well as the particularity of the myth.Therefore, it is necessary to develop a research method on this point. Otherwise, it is likely to remain as a simple comparison.If we are aware of this problem and conduct comparative researches with various methods, we will find mythological distinctiveness of both countries unlimitedly.More efforts should be followed for further investigation.

Djangar is representative Hero of Mongol Oral Epic. He lost his parents soon after he was born. He got through lot of troubles and difficulties. This Epic narrates that at the age of his 7, Djangar becomes a hero and fought with many evils, which are called as Mangus, a Mongolian Devil. He overcomes every trouble and get through without any problem. Djangar has not only ancient hero characters, but also medieval hero characters, a hero of supernature power and an ordinary man at the same time. His faithfulness, bravery, honesty, physical abilities shown from the process of overcoming difficulties are basic elements which represent Mongol People's value for their life as a community. A series of values realized byDjangar are the elements which should be realized in the circle of their own community. So Djangar, as a an object of examination, structures not only a model with a lot of dreads and praises, but also a model who makes obey constituents of a community and makes them self controled.

It is ‘Jangryeuisikyoa’that sing the world concretely since that reach in death as singing death. A person dies necessarily if is born once. Death is object of a feeling of awe and fear to an alive person. Nevertheless, human's action who consider a person and dead's relation who have lived death by having formalization seriously is Jangryeuisikyoa. Ancestors' spirit and future life that is Korean's phenomenon and a class of consciousness in spite of regional difference in formality and form of funeral ceremonies have commonly. Imagination has indwelled play on the inside. Jangryeuisikyoa became delegate item of folk art festival. Symbol of laugh that go 'Malmeki' and 'Jinsanoli' in this learning confirmed another state of life. Present age can not become meet tradition society's Jangryeuisikyoa main point to archetype. Furthermore, nowadays in life busy and ceremonial by way change of modern's funeral ceremonies that hate rapidly case of disappearing Jangryeuisikyoa main point urgent investigation and conservation need . Required compulsorily to preserve Jangryeuisikyoa right near at field work and recording faithfully data presenting is some kind of Jangryeuisikyoa called some phenomenon through work the life force keep effort do must. Form of funeral ceremonies is expressing human's spirit and future life more directly through union of existence(有) and nothingness(無). Pallbearers' dirge that send on spirit by sadness and tear must be interested to inherit this putting on base of virtue which live along with way formality of funeral ceremonies that hold together.

Clothes have not only a practical use for protecting human body but also a magical meaning. Cultural anthropologists have assumed that the origin of clothing was ligature and its purpose is to bind flippable soul from the master's body to the flesh. Because clothes directly rub against human skin, they are regarded to hold the master's features. This phenomenon can be confirmed with the homeopathic magic. On that account, the minority race in southwestern China has used clothes when having one's fortune told or laying departed souls(ghosts). Since Baikuyaos has lived an isolated lives only by themselves due to the historical reason, their clothes haven't been influenced much in clothing by the external civilization. There has been, historically, only one kind of clothing, which has the history and culture of Baikuyaos. They have considered clothes as things presented to them by God, so they still think the clothes sacred and worship them as God's clothing. Clothes are made in a holy season, kept clean, and not given to others. Clothes have two major functions; symbolic and repulsive function. Some kinds of historical symbols on clothes mean the symbolic function, and other symbolic signs related with a sword, clothes of fowls' features, and fowls are associated with the repulsive function. In the Baikuyao's society, fowls have been regarded as the ‘Solar Bird’ because people believed they called out the sun in the beginning of the world. They were also used as devination forecasting God's will, a cosmo-tree(a rod used by a shaman) presented by God, ceremony to lay ghosts, and guide for the souls of the dead. Without any developed medical science, souls were easily left from their bodies, which people thought was caused by ghosts. At the time of darkness from two to three o'clock in the morning, people thought they might have often seen ghosts and needed to call the sun out in order to kick them out. Accordingly, they made trousers in white which is the color of the sun and clothes in fowls' shapes with its printing in order to prevent harms from ghosts. That's why fowls are the solar birds. It happened in the New Stone Age that fowls considered as the solar birds were used as a repulsive function. We can find its clues and proofs in the culture of Dawenkou, Hemudu, and Liangzhu in China.

『万葉集』卷二○には天平勝宝七歲(七五五)に制作されたとされる防人歌が八四首も殘されている。先行硏究者は防人歌の蒐集の意図、防人歌の詠作場所などについても考察してきたが、特に興味を示したのは防人歌の性格についてである。 現在防人歌は悲別歌として受け止められているが、それは戰後民主主義によってもたらされたものだと考えられる。しかし、 「十五年戰爭期」にはひとつの確固たる防人歌論を示している吉野裕によって、防人歌の「基本的な」性格は「言立て」と見なされた。このような二つの見方には共通したものがあった。それは防人歌が持っている樣々な性格を意識的に排除していることである。たとえば、防人歌には大和政權の强壓的な徵募を告發している歌、防人徵募に對する忌避の思想を詠んでいる歌、家族の實情を無視して徵召する現實を暴露している歌があるものの、そうした歌々について先行硏究者はあまり注意を拂っていなかった。それはなぜなのか。 防人歌の性格についての議論が主として「十五年戰爭期」と敗戰後に行われたということ、またその議論には先ほど述べたような防人歌の多樣性が排除されたことは、戰時と戰後の日本におけるアイデンティティ一の模索ㆍ構築と密接にかかわっているのではないか。特に敗戰後には戰時中に形成された伝統の解体ㆍ否定という動きが著しかったということは周知のとおりである。いいかえれば、戰後の日本には戰時中における日本(人)のアイデンティティ一を眞正面から否定することによって、新しい日本(人)のアイデンティティ一を再構築しようとする意識があった。その意識のあらわれが、戰後に行われた防人歌の性格についての再考ではないか、と考えられる。

本稿は、朝鮮半島の王權神話が日本の王權神話と八幡信仰の形成過程でどういうような形で習合されていったかという問題を考察しようとした。兩國の王權神話が習合されて形成した八幡信仰の展開過程を考察することにより、韓日兩國の神話伝承の習合狀況を正しく理解するように、その相違点と類似点とを究明するのが本稿の目的である。 旣存の兩國の王權神話の硏究は、主に大和朝廷の政治的なイデオロギーを反映して再構成した『古事記』と『日本書紀』神話を中心に硏究されてきたので、多くの先學の硏究成果にもかかわらず、その實像がわかりにくかった。 そこで本稿では、こうした問題点を解決するため、『風土記』『八幡宇佐宮御託宣集』『東大寺要錄』などを參考にし、それぞれの伝承間の相關關係及びその影響關係を考察してみた。その結果、『風土記』と『八幡宇佐宮御託宣集』の伝承を通し、韓半島の神話伝承、たとえば伽倻の始祖神話、延烏郞と細烏女神話、石脫解神話、朱蒙神話、花郞と弥勒信仰などが日本の王權神話の中に習合されていったことがわかった。. 母子神の渡海伝承及び漂着伝承は延烏郞と細烏女神話、アメノヒボコとアカルヒメ神話、石脫解神話などのような「渡海」及び「漂着」伝承に基づいて形成し發展していったのであろう。 そして『古事記』『日本書紀』『風土記』などに個別神話として存在する、このような伝承の相關關係を知り得る鍵は『八幡宇佐宮御託宣集』の關連伝承である。にもかかわらず、『八幡宇佐宮御託宣集』は韓國ではほとんど知られていない資料なので、『古事記』と『日本書紀』などをもって日本神話を解釋する過程で、多くの未解決の課題を殘してきた。 特に韓日古代史の爭点となっている神功皇后の新羅征伐伝承に關する硏究は、いままでほとんど『古事記』や『日本書紀』のみに依存してきたので、『古事記』と『日本書紀』に書かれた伝承を中心として他の伝承との比較檢討なしに作爲的に結論を出してきた。 本稿では『託宣集』の一部のみを紹介するにとどまったが、『八幡宇佐宮御託宣集』の中に韓半島の王權神話がほとんど日本に伝承されていたことがわかった。こうした伝承を通じ、『古事記』と『日本書紀』の王權神話の中に入った韓半島の伝承を伝播した氏族が、「秦王國」の人々と呼ばれた新羅系の渡來氏族の秦氏であったことがわかった。韓日の王權神話、特に日本の王權神話の中に集合していた伝承の形成過程を理解するためには、秦氏の日本列島の移住史を理解する必要がある。 「秦王國」の中心は豊前と大隅であり、豊前から大隅に移住する過程で、八幡信仰は「宇佐八幡信仰」と「大隅八幡信仰」とに分かれていった。二つの伝承は韓半島をその源流にしながらも、「宇佐八幡信仰」は東大寺の大仏造營をきっかけにして中央に編入する過程で、神功皇后と応神天皇の新羅征伐伝承を根幹にして發展していく。これに對し、大隅八幡信仰は大和朝廷の邊防であるという地政學的位置と隼人征伐という政治的關係とが相まって、天孫「ニニギニモコト」ないし「神武天皇」の伝承をそのまま保って發展していく。 その過程で豊前國の宇佐八幡宮の場合、香春神社の伝承から韓國を辛國に表記して、韓國のイメージをなくそうとしたのに對し、大隅の大隅八幡宮の場合、韓國宇頭峯神社や韓國岳と表記しているのをみても、大隅の秦氏一族の韓國に對する執着がわかる。『託宣集』は時間的には記紀神話よりずっと後代の伝承であるにもかかわらず、大神氏の地方伝承として伝えられてきたので、特に大隅八幡信仰は韓半島の王權神話の原型に近い純粹な始祖神話として發展していったことがわかった。 今度は八幡信仰と關わりのある韓國と日本の王權神話を中心として八幡信仰の實体を追求してみたが、韓日の王權神話の影響關係などをより深く理解するには、韓國の伝承と關わりのある日本の民間伝承、すなわち他の神社緣起との比較硏究などが必要である。これは今後の硏究課題にしたい。

日本古典文學における「和魂」の用例を中心に古代から近世に至るまで「和魂」がどのような文脈において用いられ、どういう意味をもっていたのか檢討してみた。 元來古代における「和魂」は漢學を意味する「才」に對する槪念で、「ある狀況に直面した問題を判斷し分別して處理できる臨機應變の智惠のような實質的な能力を意味していた。これが江戶中期の國學の出現により新たに解釋され、「和魂」は「天地のこころ、高き直き心」「日本人固有の心」などを意味するようになった。さらに篤胤によって「和魂」は武勇や强さなどが强調され、武力で天皇と結び付けられた政治的な意味で用いられるようになったことが確認できた。 このような「和魂」の意味の變遷過程を通して次のような結論が得られた。 第一、和魂は固定した實態があったわけではないという點である。第二、和魂への自覺は他者を認識し、自己のアイデンティティが問われる際に提起されてきているとのことである。第三、古代の「和魂」は個人的な範疇の心情、才氣などを意味していた反面、近世の時期においてその意味が日本人に共通する心情に擴大していたと言う點である。第四、19世紀初め、西洋列强の通商要求と度重なる外國船舶の出現に對する危機意識が高まるにつれ、從來日本人固有の心情を意味していた「和魂」は一氣に外國に對抗する日本という觀點が强調されるようになり、日本のアイデンティティを象徵する理念に跳躍した。と同時に、その意味內容においても敵(西歐列强)の挑戰に對し命を盡くして勇ましく對應すべき武勇の精神に變えられた。 以上を考え合わせてみると、「和魂」はどの時代においても日本が直面した狀況に應じてそれに對處し克服できる論理として機能してきたことがわかる。このようなことは「和魂」が近代においてさらなる變容への可能性をも示唆していると同時に「和魂」は現代社會においても日本の直面した狀況においていつでも變化可能な槪念であると言えそうである。