Earticle

고려의 마지막 국사인 환암혼수는 고려후기 선종의 양대기둥인 사굴산문 출신으로, 공민왕에게 발탁되어 우왕대 이후 국사를 역임한 선승이며, 조선 건국 후 입적하자 태조 이성계의 왕명으로 탑과 탑비가 청룡사에 조성되었다. 혼수는 여말선초 불교계 에서의 중요도에 비해 본격적인 연구가 이루어지지 못하고 있다. 그러나 공민왕 19 년 공민왕의 친정 선언을 앞두고 국왕 친림시로 개최된 공부선 이후 나옹혜근-환암 혼수로 이어지는 계보는 여말선초 불교의 주류를 형성하며 불교계를 이끌었다는 점에서 그의 활동과 사상은 심도 있게 연구될 필요가 있다. 특히 그의 생애와 활동은 고려말 불교정책과 불교교단의 문제, 공민왕대 공부선 개최, 우왕대 공민왕 추모불 사와 光巖寺 조성, 배불론의 대두, 법통설, 여말선초 선사상, 조선초 불교교단의 문제 등 여말선초 불교사 및 사상사 더 나아가 정치사 이해와도 직접 관련되어 있다.

This research was focus on Han’am Honsu’s (幻庵混修) life and his epoch, especially on Gongbuseon selective examination (工夫選) , his serve as Guksa (National Preceptor, 國師) , Buddhist service for the memory of King Gongmin (恭愍王) and his position of chief of Gwangamsa Temple (光巖寺) . Han’am Honsu was the last National Preceptor of Goryeo dynasty. King Gongmin selected talented people, including Seon monks, Honsu was one of them. In the King Wu’s (禑 王) reign, Honsu was appointed as the National Preceptor and he kept that position till the end of Goryeo dynasty. A study of Honsu from Sagulsamun school (闍崛山門) which was one of two main posts of late Goryeo Seon doesn’t have advanced, though his importance status in Buddhism of Late Goryeo and early Joseon period. Actually, the Gongbuseon selective examination held right before of King Gongmin’s declaration of King direct rule in his reign of 19 th year, was a key moment for Naong Hyegeun (懶翁慧勤) and Honsu. In that selection, Hyegeun had selection right and Hyegeun’s disciple, Honsu was the only successful candidate. It meant that the Hyegeun and Honsu’s line took the lead and became mainstream in Late Goryeo and early Joseon period. At this point, a deep study of Honsu’s life and thoughts was necessary.

중국 선종의 5가(五家) 7종(七宗) 가운데 최초로 형성된 선종이 위앙종이다. 스승 위산과 제자 앙산의 앞 글자만 따서 위앙종이라고 한다. 위앙종의 선사상은 조사선 사상을 그대로 드러낸 시절인연을 자각하고 일상생활에 철저한 평상무사한 여여불이 다. 또한 앙산이 탐원 응진으로 97개의 원상 법을 얻은 뒤에 위산 문하에 들어와 제자들을 제접할 때 원상(圓相)을 활용했다. 우리나라 나말여초에 위앙종의 선풍이 전개되었는데, 대통·순지·무염에 의해서이다. 위앙종을 최초로 공부한 성주산문 무염의 제자 대통은 법을 받아왔지만, 신라에서 전개하지 않았다. 오관산문 순지는 앙산에게서 법을 얻어 신라로 돌아와 견성성불의 단계와 원리를 17개의 원상으로 체계 화했다. 성주산문 무염은 앙산의 설을 근거로 무설토론을 전개했다. 중국에서는 북송대에 위앙종이 5대로 법맥이 끊겼는데, 근현대 선사인 허운에 의해 위앙종 선풍이 다시 전개되고, 법맥도 전승되고 있다. 우리나라는 고려 때 지겸이 『종문원상집』을 통해 일원상을 재편집했다. 위앙종의 선풍은 선종사에 발전되거나 전승되지 못했지만, 원상은 당대(唐代) 이후 제자들을 깨우치는 방편으로 활용되 기도 하고, 오도송으로 표현되었다.

The Dhyana school in China was largely developed from the late Dang dynasty. That is, it can be said as the start of Patriarchal meditation, at this time various sects of Dhyana school were formed. In the Five Houses and Seven Schools (五家七宗) , the first formed Dhyana sect was the Wiang order of the Majo school. The name came from the first letters of Master Wisan and his disciple Angsan. The Seon of Wiang order is to realize the law of timely causality disclosing the thought of Patriarchal meditation and do one’s best for daily lives as Tathata Buddha. And also before Angsan was studying under the Wisan school, he gained the dharma with 97 perfect laws from Tamwon Eungjin. After then, the one perfect law was used as the teaching of how to do Hwadu for his disciples or the way of enlightenment. By Daetong, Sunji, Muyeom, the Seon wind of Wiang order was blown from the late Silla to the early Goryeo periods in Korea. Daetong, a disciple of Muyeom studying in the Seongjusanmun, was transmitted for the dharma though, he did not develop it in the Silla. Sunji in the Ogwansanmun attained the dharma of Angsan and came back to the Silla. He systemized the levels and principles of Buddhahood with 17 perfect laws. Muyeom in the Seongjusanmun developed the discussion of Nothing to say based on the theory of Angsan. Of course, he mentioned the discussion of Nothing to say as the superiority theory of Patriarchal meditation in Korea though, the discussion of Nothing to say by Muyeom shows the part of coincidence of Seon and Doctrine. In China, the dharma lineage of Wiang order was ended as the Five generation. However the modern Seon master Heowoon developed the Seon wind of Wiang order, and also the dharma lineage has been transmitted. In Korea, Jigyeom in the Goryeo period re-edited the one perfect law in the collection of Jongmunwonsang. The Seon wind of Wiang order could not be developed or transmitted in the history of Dhyana school. However, after Dang dynasty (唐代) , the perfect law was expressed as the ultimate truth of round and perfect enlightenment and used as the expedient to disenchant disciples of Seon masters in East Asia and as sources for making enlightenment poems.

구연설화를 선지식의 법문에 활용할 가능성을 탐색했다. 불공에 호응하는 부처의 영험을 보여주는 설화들은 스스로 수행하기 보다는 불공에 정성을 더 들이는 대중을 위한 법문에 적극 활용될 수 있을 것이다. 일상생활을 하면서 부처가 되거나 부처를 발견하는 설화 유형도 있다. 이런 설화들은 부처의 본질에 대해 통속적 질문을 던지고 그에 대해 나름대로의 답을 모색하게 한다. 그리고 그것을 일상생활의 덕목이나 생활 태도로 응용한다. 화두수행과 득도의 과정을 보여주는 설화들은 화두수행의 가치와 효용에 대한 대중의 성찰을 보여준다. 이들은 재물에 대한 욕심이 득도에 결정적 장애가 되는 것으로 보았다. 아랫사람인 어린 상좌가 웃어른인 스님을 구원하고 득도케 한다는 점에서 세속 통념을 파괴했다. 웃어른 스님의 충격적 자기 부정은 ‘무아(無我)’의 진리로 나아 가는 시금석이 될 수 있다. 불공 올리기에만 익숙해져 화두 수행으로부터 멀어져 있거나 화두 수행의 감을 잘 못잡고 있는 대중들을 화두 수행으로 이끌어주는데 알맞은 설화 작품들도 있다. 이들 설화들은 생을 거듭해서라도 간절히 수행하면 결국 득도해 해방될 수 있다는 희망을 불어넣어준다는 점에서 법문에서 중요하게 다뤄질 수 있을 것이다.

This paper aims to excavate the Korean Folktales of Buddha’s miracles and Buddhist practice and enlightenment, and explicate their meanings, which would result in helping the virtuous monks utilize to their teachings. Korean Oral Buddhist Folktales are particularly suitable materials in that they expose ordinary people’s viewpoint and understanding on Buddhism and its practice. The first type of folktales represents the stories in which Buddha performs miracles in response to the ordinary people’s prayers. These stories would help the people indirectly experience Buddha’s miraculous power, strengthening their belief. These stories, however, lack in the elements of Zen meditation. Another type represents the stories in which ordinary person either becomes or encounters Buddha. These stories connect the process of becoming or discovering Buddha to everyday virtues and attitudes. They help keep Buddhist belief and practice from being separated from people’s everyday life. However those stories are limited in that they still cling to the idea of discrimination. The other type of folktales shows people’s realization of the values and effects of Zen practice and Koan by showing the process of attaining Nirvana through them. These stories emphasize the fact that people’s greed is a decisive obstacle to their enlightenment. These stories destroy the common notion of relationship between monk and his disciple, in that greedy monks get reincarnated in serpents; their disciples save their teachers and help them attainenlightenment. The monks’ shocking self-denial could be an important cornerstone to advance to the truth of self-annihilation. This type of stories foregrounds the parts of 'looking back’ and ‘going back’ that separate the monk from his disciple. These stories point out that the monk who looks back and goes back can not escape from the desire and obsession of everyday life. One of the most widely spread Korean legends, <Legend of Jangja Mot>, and <The Gospel According to Luke> exhibit similar but contrasting lesson. Their comparison would lead to an interesting discussion in Buddhist teachings. Folktales of Buddhist enlightenment and practice could be the most useful material of teaching Buddhism in that they impart the people hope of enlightenment and freedom if they sincerely practice the Buddhist teachings.

본고는 간화선, 절, 염불, 주력, 독경, 사경, 그리고 위빠사나를 대상으로 불교 수행 프로그램의 실태 분석과 개선 방향을 제시하고 있다. 이들 수행법에 따른 프로그램의 실태를 분석한 결과, 프로그램 운영 목적의 비불교성, 프로그램의 체계화와 표준화 미비, 전문수행 프로그램의 지속적 운영 부족, 수행의 점검과 지도 부재 등의 문제가 있었다. 본고는 이러한 문제점에 대한 개선 방향을 개발 방향과 운영 방향으로 구분했다. 개발방향의 측면에서는, 불교적 정체성을 갖춘 프로그램의 개발, 누구나 일상에서 실행할 수 있는 프로그램의 개발, 수행법별로 일정한 기준에 따른 통일성을 갖춘 프로 그램의 개발을 제시했다. 그리고 운영 방향의 측면에서는, 프로그램의 불교적 정체 성을 담보할 수 있는 전문지도자 양성과 경험 많고 눈 푸른 스승에 의한 수행의 점검과 지도를 제시했다.

Buddhist practice is the way to becoming a Buddha. This distinguishes self-power-faith-based Buddhism from faiths in other power. But Buddhist practice is being perceived as something mysterious by the general public. Considering that Buddhism leads all sentient beings to shed suffering and to reach the liberation realm, the skillful means of Buddhist practice needs to be popularized and to be performed in daily routines. Thus, this paper, for the popularization and daily routine performance of Buddhist practice, analyzes the Buddhist practice program status and presents its improvement direction. Korean Buddhism, which pursues ecumenical Buddhism, has inherited diverse practice methods, but this paper studied phrase-observing meditation (看話禪) , deep bow, remembrance of the Buddha’s name (念佛) , dhāraṇī, reading the scriptures (讀經) , sūtra copying (寫經) , and insight meditation (vipassanā) practice methods. An analysis of the programs according to these Buddhist practice methods revealed these problems: the purpose of program implementation being irrelevant to Buddhism, inappropriate systemization and standardization of programs, a lack of continuous implementation of special programs, and a lack of inspection and guidance efforts for Buddhist practice. With regard to these problems of Buddhist practice programs, this paper presented the improvement direction from the aspect of development direction and implementation direction. From the development direction aspect, first, true Buddhist practice programs with Buddhist identity need to be developed not to meet worldly desires and needs but to cut off these. Second, regardless of Buddhists or non-Buddhists, Buddhist practice programs that everyone can participate in and practice in daily routines need to be developed. Third, certain standardized and consistent Buddhist practice programs according to practice methods need to be developed. Furthermore, from the implementation aspect, first, there is a need to foster experienced specialist instructors who well protect the identity of Buddhist practice from third practice methods and other similar programs and who can guide lay practitioners. Also, today’s Korean Buddhism, which lack inspection of Buddhist practice, should be awakened to boosting the inspection and guidance efforts for Buddhist practice.

반야중관 경론에서부터 공에 대한 사견과 그러한 견해를 지닌 사람들(空見論者)에 대한 경계가 등장한다. 이들 문헌에서는 공유(空有)와 공무(空無)의 잘못된 견해를 모두 경계하였고, 공유의 견해에 대해 더욱 경계하는 것으로도 보인다. 한역만 남아있는 『대지도론』에는 상무(常無)의 견해에 집착한 방광도인이라는 표현이 나오고, 초기 유가행파 문헌에서는 공무의 견해에 집착한 사람들을 악취공(자)라고 하면서 비판하는 내용이 등장한다. 동아시아 불교에서 『대지도론』을 중요시했던 지의(智顗)와 길장(吉 藏)은 방광도인이 상무만을 알아서 중도를 벗어나고 이제를 상실한 사람이라고 비판 한다. 동시에 악취공자도 같은 관점에서 비판하고 있다. 동아시아 불교주석은 방광 도인이나 악취공자 모두 공무(空無)에 치우친 공견론자 비판으로 일관하게 된다는 특징이 있다.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, holders of evil Ideas, and heretical followers of Mahāyāna are terms describing those who are attached to erroneous views on the notion of emptiness (Śūnyatā) . In early Buddhism and Mahāyāna Buddhism, is it coincidental to be attached to the ontological nature of the existence or non-existence (of dharmas) in the process of concrete apprehension and realization of the Buddha’s doctrine of no-self? The history of Buddhism shows that the requirement of the emptiness of self and the emptiness of dharmas has been very difficult in the epistemological structure of human being. In other words, despite the realization of the emptiness of self and dharmas by discernment, erroneous misunderstanding of them might grow without continuous practice in connection with them for more thorough actualization in one’s own life and epistemological stance. Yet critical blocks of texts on erroneous viewers or holders of evil Ideas, and heretical followers of Mahāyāna could be ascertained to show the fact that Indian and East Asian Buddhism have been unanimous in their efforts toward correct views on the notion of emptiness through epistemological intellectualization. In the critiques of Jizang (吉藏) and Zhiyi (智顗) on the heretical followers of Mahāyāna, erroneous misunderstanding on emptiness could be ascertained to be essential in leading people astray from correct views on its Two truths (二諦) . This also leads us to recognize thoroughly the truth that correct views are common and objective to all of those enlightened.

1994년 종단개혁 이후 교육원은 승가 교육의 제도 개선과 교과과정 정비 및 표준교 과목을 개편했다. 본 논문은 현대의 승가교육 제도가 개선, 전개, 그리고 교과과정과 교과목이 개편, 정착, 시행되는 과정을 정리한 것이다. 제Ⅱ장은 조계종단의 기본교육기관의 내용, 문교부 인가의 4년제 제도, 지방 승가대 학의 재도약에 대한 내용. 제Ⅲ장은 개혁종단 출범이후 승가교육체계 정비 기간, 기본교육에 대한 개선, 기초 선원, 중앙승가대, 동국대를 통일적인 체계로 관리, 구족계 이후 지속적인 수행과 교육, 승가교육체계의 재정립. 제Ⅳ장은 재편성 된 후 각 지방 승가대학과 지방 승가대학에 개편된 표준교과과정을 중심으로 교육을 실시하도록 지도하고 있다.

After the Jogye Order’s Reform in 1994, the Education Institute has achieved long-cherished business, namely Sangha education system improvement, curriculum maintenance’ and curriculum standards’ improvement for ten years. This Paper deals with the procedure which Sangha’s education system has been improved and developed, the establishment of basic educational Institution, and the procedure which education courses and curriculum have been exchanged, established, practiced. These contents could be abbreviated as follows: The second Chapter, at first, could be explained about types of basic education Institution in the Jogye Order and contents to be completed in the courses. Secondly, we investigate the Joong-ang Sangha University’s established procedure and System, which is a basic education Institution approved by Ministry of Education. Thirdly, it has contents about regional Sangha University’s revitalization which was timely retreated because of the Phenomena focused on new education. Regional Sangha Universities which entered into a crisis situation to be closed are evolving to a new phase after their revitalization. In the Third Chapter, we observed the exchanged contents about education system pushed ahead with the Reformist Forum held by him after starting from the Reformist Order. the teaching method in education conducted by the Reformist Order methodizes in three parts. In the first phase, as the time of Sangha education system’s maintenance, the most main work in this time is that the education institution divided into regional Sangha university, basic meditation center, Joongang Sangha University and Dongguk University was managed as a unified system. In the second phase, by the time of the Sangha Education’s substantiality, having been accepted as monks or nuns, it was the established education framework able to practice an study insistently. In the third phase as the reestablishment of the Sangha education system, it sought the quality leap to a new basic Sangha education The fourth Chapter ordered contents which having reconstructed basic education courses, the new oriented curriculum standards have been educated in each regional Sangha University. Before such a system and education had been conducted by the current education institute, there were several public pro and contra opinions. Currently, the education institute of the Jogye Order seeks and decides the best oriented method and leads to conduct the education focused on the newly changed curriculum standards in regional Sangha University.