Earticle

This paper starts from a question: do women translators work in female language? Several studies have shown gender differences by comparing translations by men and women from the same original text. Also there are studies which suggest different writing styles between men and women. However the tendency is not always the case; men translators use female language in their translations, when women don't; half of the interviewed college lecturers answered that gender difference is not found in their writing classes. Whether women translators' language exists or not remains not answered until now. A lot of questions remain: gender difference or personal difference?; spoken language alone or as well as written language?; female language as a chosen translation strategy or a given, automatized trait? Translators and translation trainers need to be conscious of the possible existence of gender-differenced language and its influence on translation.

Viewed from the feminist translation theory, translation in China has double status, unlike in West, which was compared to the status of women and therefore, derogated. On the one hand, translation had a minor status as a female image and neglected in the Chinese society. But on the other, it sometimes had a male image and was revered, enriching the nation’s wealth and troops and raising the nation in difficult times. While the status of translation has been contradictory, the standard of translation has been faithfully emphasized in China. The status of translation in China has long been subject to controversy in terms of feminism, in other words, the question of gender. However, the Opium War and the new cultural May 4 Movement in the early 20th Century introduced western feminism to China and the Chinese women led their liberation movement in spiritual awareness. They laid claim to the abolishment of the feudal system, the equality of education for men and women, economic independence of women, free love, etc. With the establishment of New China in 1949, female liberalization was realized but it was rather a politically used Marxist female liberalization. In the late 1990’s, the realigned western feminist translation theory was introduced, attracting attention in China. Accordingly, lots of academic papers were produced and female feminist translators tried to apply western translation strategies to their works and emphasize female identity, create female language, shed light on female issues, express feminist ideology and re-translate their works. However, compared to West, their efforts failed to produce practical results nor break away from their translation style, which was faithfulness. Nevertheless, feminist translation theory has expanded the vision and scope of domestic translation studies and continues to pose a lot of research questions.

This study aims to analyze the Russian translation of Kim Joo-Young's 'The Sound of Thunder' to examine translation problems in translating Korean women's language. As for the concept of women’s language, this study defines it the “language where women are the subject”, which includes address terms, expressions, and conducts related to women. According to Korean linguists, Korean women's language was influenced by Confucian principles and reflects traditions of food, clothing, other life necessities, social norms, history, and unequal representation of women in Korean society, such as man-dominance, preference to sons, the patriarchal system, etc. Therefore, it is hard to find any equivalent expressions or concepts in target language. And translating such kind of culture-specific women's languages, a translator faces the problems caused by cultural gaps. In this regard, the translation of korean women's language is not just changing linguistic codes, but mediating cultural gaps between source language and target language societies. This paper, in this perspectives, analyzes the Russian translations of 'the Sound of Thunder' and examines which translation strategies are taken by the translator to mediate the cultural gaps related with women's language.

이 논문은 번역자의 성(性)이 번역물의 가독성에 미치는 영향을 분석하였다. 가독성은 Flesch의 가독성 공식을 이용하여 측정하였다. 보다 구체적으로, 본 논문은 기업 홈페이지에 게시된 남녀별 최고경영자(CEO) 인사말의 영어 번역문의 가독성을 비교하였다. 본 연구는 CEO가, 스스로가 자신의 CEO 인사말의 번역자가 아닐지라도, 인사말 번역문에 서명을 추가하거나, 또는 타인의 번역에 대해 수정을 가함으로써 일정 부분 번역과정에 개입하는 것으로 전제하였다. 성과 언어에 대한 선행연구는 대부분 성과 언어 학습, 그리고 성과 언어사용에 초점을 맞추어왔다. 선행연구는 남자와 여자가 서로 다른 언어 사용 행태를 보인다고 보고하고 있다. 따라서 본 연구는 남성 CEO의 인사말 번역문의 가독성과 여성 CEO 인사말 번역문의 가독성은 서로 다르다고 가설을 설정하였다. 연구 결과, 남성 CEO 기업 50개와 여성 CEO 기업 50개의 CEO 인사말 번역문의 가독성이 다르다는 가설은 지지되는 것으로 나타났다. 구체적으로, 여성 CEO의 인사말 번역문의 가독성이 남성의 그것보다 유의하게 더 높은 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구가 시사하는 바는, 가독성 측면에서 볼 때, 여성 CEO가 남성 CEO 보다 기업 외부 정보이용자와의 커뮤니케이션에서 보다 효과적인 전략을 채택하고 있음을 보여준다.

Graduate-level conference interpreting training in Korea has existed for over three decades. And yet, not enough has been discussed on the specific contents and methods of interpretation teaching and learning. That is to say, a prototype for interpretation pedagogy has yet to be established for current and future teachers' reference. However, this much is known: Because interpreting skills can only be acquired by the practice-makes-perfect method, a typical interpreting session naturally comprises hands-on training followed by critiquing. Given that students as a group engage in discussions throughout the class in seeking optimal solutions to issues ranging from content anticipation to interpretation product evaluation, collaborative learning is at the center of the interpretation classroom. But there is a greater need for scholarly discussion on the specifics and dynamics of interaction among students leading to effective learning within the framework of collaborative learning. The current study presents basic guidelines for the English-into-Korean consecutive interpreting class with particular focus on group brainstorming and peer assessment as the two main forms of collaborative classroom activity. The study covers potential hindrances to collaborative knowledge construction, role division among students, and teacher's session management according to time allotment. It concludes with a speech text sample presenting areas of consideration for participants of collaborative learning activities in the interpreting class.

This study aims to explore the differences in utilizing textual metadiscourses in the translated Letters to Shareholders (from Korean into English) and their non-translated counterparts (originally written in English). Textual metadiscourse is an umbrella term for various linguistic resources that a writer uses to help his/her readers understand and interpret the text in a way that the writer intends. The analysis of textual metadiscourses in the translations and non-translations showed that relatively more comparison transitions were used in non-translations, while more addition transitions were used in translations. Translations tend to use frame markers to propose strategies or plans for the coming years, while non-translations tend to use them to report the company's performance of the previous year. Code glosses showed a relatively big difference in the two sets of the texts. Non-translations were found to use more of reformulation code glosses than translations, which could be explained in line with different writing practices in the two cultures. In English writing culture, a writer is said to assume responsibility for a success of communication, while in Korean culture, the responsibility is on the part of readers. Such differences in the use of textual metadiscourses could be used to help translation students be sensitive to the different linguistic resources they need to use in translating across cultures.

Without a doubt, the history of humanities is the history of translation. Throughout the history of humankind, translation has been the most important source of intellectual knowledge, and thus establishment of the general rules in traductology is the basis of the humanities. Translation of Sanskrit texts made significant contributions to the development of Classical Chinese, and Korean alphabet became the best epistémé of the time through the translation of the Classical Chinese, the Mongolian, and the Tibetan texts. The mode and contents of the early Eonhae texts, such as Hunminjeongeum-Eonhae(訓民正音諺解), Sukbosangjul-Seo(釋譜詳節序), and Wolinsukbo-Seo(月印釋譜序), are products of the best efforts of the intellectual community at the time, and became the paragon of style and écriture in Korean through the following four translations steps: Classical Chinese — Gugyeol — translation of the words — Eonhae. Especially the prefaces of the Eonhae texts have significant meaning in the history of translation. King Sejo’s Wolinsukbo-Seo shows his great appreciation on humanscientific study, and it is among the best theories of translation in the world. Moreover, the translators of the Eonhae texts did not solely relied on dynamical reception or literary translation. They used both methods and therefore the Eonhae texts became the paragon of translation, which combines various modern theories of translation in the West. We must recognize the significance of the history of translation in Korea through the study of the translational methodology of hyeobju and gugyul in the early Eonhae Texts.

Current translation theories are based on the concept of mutual reliance of cultures and languages. Namely, the external factors of language play a bigger role in translation than internal factors thereof. For translation research dealing with a diversity of areas, it is necessary to be free from factors immanent in texts and to think that translation is related to society. Then, in macro-perspectives, cultures and social phenomena should be reflected. Having been influenced by post-structuralism, translation researchers start to regard translation not as simple language conversion or information transition in texts, but as the action of power that surfaces in the process of translation between languages of different cultures. Against this backdrop, the best representative scholar is Foucault M., who has had significant effects on the current translation research. Presenting the power discourse theory, he argues that power refers to all the elements in control and rule, forming a type of network in all areas in a human society. Under the restraints of power discourse, from which, translators can not be free, the representative methodologies that can be chosen in the process of translation between languages of different cultures are foreignization and domestication. It is also implied that the process is differently applied by genre, depending upon whether ST and TT are a strong or weak culture.

Thanks to the trends of globalization and internationalization, interests in translation and interpretation are increasing continuously, which led to diversified methodology of translation and interpretation studies. In South Korea, postgraduate schools were the agents of translation and interpretation studies so far; however, more undergraduate schools are participating in education of translation and interpretation, and various studies on the direction of undergraduate-level are being conducted. Of all the undergraduate-level translation and interpretation studies, this study focuses upon how to conduct the introduction to translation and interpretation course effectively, particularly when the students of various specialisations are supposed to take the course. If there is an independent department of translation and interpretation studies within a college, then the introduction course may well be conducted focussing upon the relevant language. And yet, if the students specialising in different languages are supposed to take one introduction course altogether, then it may not be practical to provide translation and interpretation trainings via one particular language. Therefore, it is required to employ various approaches to conduct the course. To match the theory with reality, knowledge on the relevant languages is essential, and for that reason, it is unavoidable to raise the question of how to solve the problems arising from unbalanced or non-existent knowledge on the language and conduct the course effectively. In this study, various educational methods will be explored in detail that may be applied when conducting introductory courses on the theory and reality of translation and interpretation studies for undergraduate students who share limited linguistic knowledge amongst themselves.

One of the major lines of inquiry that scholars and researchers in Translation Studies have pursued since the beginning of the discipline in modern times concerns the motivations behind the choices and decisions made by translators. In ways different from linguistic and pedagogical approaches to this question, Descriptive Translation Studies(DTS) has focussed more on the input and output ends of the translation process as an object of direst observation. This paper starts with an overview of the various approaches in this field of research before proceeding to discuss in some depth some advantages of DTS in acquiring insight into the nature and function of translation as a cultural and historical phenomenon. Two distinct merits of DTS are identified: one with its view of translators as an active social agent, and the other with its emphasis on larger social and ideological structures in explaining norms. The lack of DTS-based research in today's Korea is noted before, by way of concluding, a couple of seemingly fruitful future research directions are suggested.

This paper attempts to explore issues of comparability in the assessment of interpreting when more than two raters are involved. It is often argued that the assessment results are not reliable as raters apply different criteria and rating systems. It is complicated, however, to investigate the issues as they are mostly stem from the raters' subconscious; indeed, the raters themselves may find it difficult to specify these issues. In order to investigate the raters' internal systems, a series of assessments and coordination sessions have been devised, ultimately aiming to achieve comparability among raters. While the raters all inevitably develop different assessment criteria due to their different work experiences and educational backgrounds, they could be guided to share a common set of criteria for assessment through a series of assessment exercises. This may be particularly helpful for novice teachers, not only for their assessment but also for their teaching. Further, these coordination activities could contribute to coordination of the implementation of the curriculum when multiple classes are run in parallel.

This study looks into some translation examples found on the English website of Boryeong Mud Festival as a way to highlight four important considerations that translators are advised to bear in mind when working on event titles and promotional phrases written in Korean. The categories of such considerations are derived from a set of questions that translators need to ask themselves before they set out to translate words and phrases of the sort. The considerations relate to: i) the importance of translating the function and the inherent quality, not the words, ii) the translator's judgement on the importance of the source text information, iii) the transferring of cultural items and compensation for translation loss, and iv) the condensation of redundant or unnecessarily long phrases. Every textual element of the source text chosen as a sample in this study is not a sentence in its conventional sense, but a series of words. This is attributable to the specific layout of the website and resulting lack of space, which inevitably poses certain translation constraints. In such a translation situation, the success of a potential translation depends mainly on whether the translator can find appropriate words and phrases. As a basis for this discussion, the concepts of equivalence and context are briefly dealt with in separate sections.

A language changes within the internal linguistic system over time, but also for various other reasons. Language contact may be one of the reasons, and translation is obviously a form of language contact. In a globalized world, translation from English, a lingua franca, into other languages-and its importance-is ever-increasing, and English-Korean translation is no exception. Against this backdrop, this study aims to identify the influence of English as a hegemonic language on the Korean language through translational contact. Today, languages contact in a more direct manner than ever before even between ones as typologically and geographically far from each other as Korean and English by virtue of the Internet, mass media and travels; nevertheless, translation still serves as a primary conduit for communication between users of different languages. Thus, translation, involving translators as agents of language contact and change, may arguably influence the language community as a whole, given all instances of translation taking place around us. In written translation, the decisions and choices translators make in the process of translational contact may well be preserved in the form of various linguistic features. Among others, this study analyzed two features occurring at different levels of text: terminology and modality. These variables were selected based on earlier research work to represent the nature of IT news articles, where English apparently exerts greater influence as a language of power and intrusion than in other fields. For the analysis of the features, a parallel corpus of English source texts and Korean target texts and a comparable corpus of Korean original texts were constructed. Findings show that both in terminology and modality, Korean target texts and Korean original texts show statistically significant differences, an indication that the translated texts underwent some contact-induced change. The present study may serve as a preliminary research to lay the groundwork for related follow-up studies.

역사적 맥락, 특정 시대나 그 시대의 지식들, 그것의 사유 가능성과 그 조건들을 고 려하지 않은 채, 선험적인 잣대(직역/의역 따위)에 의지해서, 항간에 선보인 번역 작품의 가치를 판단할 수 없는 것과 마찬가지로, 중역뿐만 아니라, 번역에 있어서도 일반론을 상정하는 것은 가능하지도, 타당하지도 않다. 중역에 관한 논의의 필요성이 발생하는 것인 바로 이 때문이다. 개화기 근대문명과 현대사상을 수용하는 과정이 일본어를 경유한 거개의 작품을 토대로 이루어졌다는 사실은 한국어의 실험과 근대 에크리튀르의 창출에 기여하였다는 관점에서 중역을 바라보고자 할 때, 수많은 서양 문학 작품을 한국어로 번역한 최남선의 작업은 가장 중요한 것으로 평가받을 만한 시대적 증거이자, 번역적 실천을 통해 근대 한국어의 틀을 만들어내고, 언어의 혁신을 도모한 예로 간주하기에 부족함이 없어 보인다. 최남선이 위고의 「레 미제라블」을 번역한 것은 원본을 참조한 것이 아니라, 일본어 번역본을 저본으로 삼은 것이었다. 그러나 번역의 과정에서 일본어 번역본의 모사나 모방에 그치는 것이 아니라 근대 한국어의 문법 체계를 확립한 것으로 평가해야 한다. 그의 「레 미제라블」번역은 ‘구두점’의 체계적인 사용을 바탕으로 근대 개념어(메이지에 고안한)와 일본식의 그것에서 왔다고는 말할 수는 없을 단어들을 조사와 종결어미 역할을 주로 담당하는 조선식 구어와 혼합해 새로운 ‘서기체계(書記體系, 에크리튀르)를 만들어내었다. 주목해야할 것은 ‘革命’이나 ‘近代’, ‘社會’나 ‘體系’와 같은 일본식 근대 한자어 단어에 ‘自誓’, ‘倏忽’, ‘隱沒’, ‘靜穏’, ‘閒暇’, ‘憎怨’, ‘專恣’, ‘牢確’, ‘紛擾’, ‘說諭’ 등의 전통 한자들이 오늘날 우리가 사용하고 있는 통사법과 닮은꼴인 문장의 구조 전반에 녹아있다는 것이다. 바로 이러한 관점에서, 개화기 전후에 시도되었던 ‘중역’은 일방적으로 일본어를 차용해온 기계적이고 수동적인 행위가 아니라 근대 한국어의 에크리튀르를 확립하는 과정에서 새로운 문법을 만들어내었던 근본적인 수단이었다고 할 수 있다. 중역은 ‘그대로 차용하는 번역’이라는 통념과는 동떨어진, 글쓰기의 실험을 도모할 방법이었으며, 중역을 바라보는 관점은 문학과 문학사, 에크리튀르의 전환 언어와 타자에 드리워진 다양한 인식들이 갈라서고 대립하는 교차로를 형성한다. 서구의 근대사상이 유입되고 언문일치를 궁리해 나간, 개화기 이후 진문(眞文)의 중심이탈을 촉진시킨 에크리튀르의 실험이 중역을 통한 번안 작업에서 착수되었다는 사실은 부정될 수 없는 것이며, 최남선을 위시한 당시의 번역 작품들은 바로 이러한 관점에서 볼 때, 한국 근대문학의 수립에 지대한 영향을 끼쳤다. 한자와의 대응관계를 고민하면서, 이후 근대 한국어가 자율적이면서 독립적인 체계를 형성해나가는 데, 중역을 통해 최남선이 주도해나갔던 에크리튀르의 재배치 작업과 그것이 추동한 영향력과 효과는 한국어의 변화와 형성을 설명해주는 근간이자 새로운 언어 문화적 전환기를 맞아 식민지 지식인이 자국어 상실의 위기를 맞아 취한 이데올로기적 저항의 징표로 볼 수 있다. 메이지 일본의 물질문명에서 받은 ‘충격의 경험’(벤야민) 속에서 중국과 유교라는 ‘유일무이한 현존성’, 즉 ‘아우라’의 파괴를 감내해야 했던 중인 출신의 지식인들이 당장에 실천되지 않으면 안 될 보편적 가치로 삼았던 근대의 재현은 이처럼 번역(중역)이라는언어ㆍ문화적 재배치를 통해 착수될 수 있었던, 당시로서는 희미한 가능성일 뿐이었다. 최남선에게 번역-중역은 비극적 세계관을 떨쳐 버리고, 변증법적 세계관을 구현해 볼 유일한 수단이자 방법이었던 것이다. 최남선의 중역은 번역은 예(禮)와 유(儒)가 근저를 형성했던 전통이 유효하지 않음을 척박한 식민지에다가 선포하고, 말(言)과 글(文)의 일치를 궁리하면서 계몽과 합리를 정착시켰던 ‘원본의 재영토화 과정’이자 이데올로기의 변형자의 자격으로, 근대 한국어의 언어ㆍ정치적 상황을 주도해나갔던 주체였다.

릴레이 통역이란 메시지 전달을 위해 두 명 이상의 통역사가 필요한 경우의 통역 을 일컫는다. 릴레이 통역은 EU회의장에서 그리고 동시통역에서 자주 사용되는 기 법이며 이는 현재까지 알려진 방법 중 소수어를 전달할 수 있는 유일한 방법이다. 소수 언어는 이 언어에 대한 언어적 지식이 있는 혹은 이가 수동 언어인 피봇 통역사를통해 릴레이 언어(영어, 불어, 스페인어, 독일어 또는 이탈리아어)로 통역된다. 릴레이 통역사는 피봇 통역사의 1차 통역을 받아 이를 다시 최종 목표언어로 재생산하는 역할을 담당한다. 따라서 릴레이 통역에서 피봇 통역사의 역할은 매우 중요하다. 통역 중 불필요한 문장이나 언어유희 없이 분명하고 명확하게 출발어 메시지를 전달해야하는 역할을 담당하고 있기 때문이다. 이들의 최종 언어 목표는 L1, L2가 아닌 L3이다. 피봇 통역사의 통역은 릴레이 통역사의 통역, 즉 전체 통역의 질에 직접적인 영향을 미칠 수 밖에 없기 때문에 그 역할이 매우 중요하다. 대부분의 EU국가의 정치 경제 분야는 영어를 공용어로 채택하고 있다. 유럽헌법조약에 따르면 각 회원국들은 자국의 언어를 사용할 수 있는 권리를 가지고 있다. 하지만 실상은, 대부분의 EU회원국들은 영어를 교류 언어로 사용되고 있다. 또한 영어는 동유럽 통역 교육 현장에서도 능동 언어로 사용되고, 렐이이 통역에서 피봇 언어로 사용되고 있다. 이와 관련해, 프랑스와 독일은 각각 자국어가 EU회의 현장에서 영어와 동등한 비중을 가지지 못한다고 주장하고 있고 스페인어와 이탈리아어는 실제로 거의 사용되지 않고 있으며, 이탈리아어는 심지어 릴레이 통역 언어에 포함되지 않는다. 릴레이 통역은 항상 적용 가능한 통역 형식은 아니다. 왜냐하면 많은 전문 통역사들은 릴레이 통역 세팅을 부담스러워하기도 하고 또 한편으로는 안면이 없는 통역사와 작업하는 것에 커다란 부담을 느끼기 때문이다. 하지만 릴레이 통역은 향후 몇 년 간 커뮤니케이션의 가교 역할을 대표하는 유용한 도구일 것이며 앞으로 새로운 EU 회원국이 가입하고 나아가 서로 다른 문화 언어권 커뮤니티가 만났을 때 더 큰 역할을 하게 될 것이다.