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It seems impractical in the realm of international trade that the effectiveness of principle of law is higher than that of specific rule. In order to protect their interests, developed countries put rules representing their interests override the fundamental principles of international law in the practice of international trade. Raw material case is the one of cases concerning this matter. What reflects in this case is that the effectiveness of fundamental principles of international law, such as environment protection and sustainable development, is far lower than the trade rules when it refers to the conscience and behavior of trade protectionism. Therefore, based on principle regarding to relation of effectiveness between fundamental principles and trade rules, China and other developing countries should have an analysis of rules in force, and utilize the theory with regard to interpretation of international law and plea technique to protect our rightful interests to the most extent. Moreover, the most significant thing is that, we should make a proposal to modify the rules in force which are unfair and unjust based on fundamental principles of international law, as well as make our voice heard in the process of creating new rules.

“法律原则的效力高于具体规则” 这一基本法理在国际贸易领域中似乎行不通. 发达国家在国际 贸易实务中常将代表其利益的规则凌驾于国际法基本原则之上, 以保护其利益. “中国---与原材料 出口相关措施案” 即为一例；该案折射出 “环境保护和可持续发展”等国际法基本原则在贸易保护 主义者的意识及行为中远不及贸易规则有效. 为此, 中国等发展中国家应根据国际法基本原则与贸 易规则效力关系原理, 对现行规则进行分析, 利用国际法解释理论和辩诉技巧寻找突破口, 以最大 程度维护自身正当利益；当然,更为重要的是, 应根据国际法基本原则, 对现有规则的不合理、不 公平之处提出修改, 并在创制新规则中发出自己的声音.

In July 1992, Chunfeng Wenyi Publishing House (Shenyang) published and distributed “After the Fortress Besieged” created by Lu Zhaoming. Mr. Qian Zhongshu claimed that Lu Zhaoming created a sequel of Fortress Besieged without his permission has violated his copyright. This gave rise to a discussion among scholars of sequel and related issues. With the development of network, as well as film and television industry, sequel is no longer just limited to novel, but also extended to film and television works. In this context, what is the nature of sequel? Whether the interests of sequel can be a right? To whom the interests belong? And how to exercise the sequel rights after the interests recognized by law? Discussions of all these questions have an important theoretical and practical significance. When Chinese scho lars probe into sequel issues, most o f them focus on the side o f sequel writer. While the authors think the interests of both parties—— the original and sequel, should be taken into account, and be analyzed under the framework of existing copyright law. First, the sequel versus the originality of original. The sequel is a new work that created independently on the basis of the existing work. Therefore, a sequel is dependent on the original work though it has absorbed intellectual achievements of the original work. But at the same time, the sequel is the results of independent thinking, which constitutes a new work. Second, the sequel versus the copyright of original work and its restriction. S equel do es n o t make change t o the o riginal wo rk i tself, a nd t he work of “future” cannot be adjusted by the right of integrity, or adaptation right. As a result, sequel does not infringe on the above two rights of the original author. The purpose of fair use is to ensure the public’s right to know the society information, ensure the public can access to works protected by copyright, namely to get ideas, material, knowledge and information from them. The sequel is a kind of use; therefore it should not be characterized as fair use. On the ownership of sequel interests. Chinese Copyright Law lacks regulation of sequel, while sequel has become unavoidable in disputes. As a result, we need to clarify the right attribution of sequel interests on the basis of sufficient demonstration. The legitimacy of sequel interest arises from the right characteristics and the requirements of righting. Moreover, the righting of sequel interest is beneficial to settling disputes. We should learn from the United States and other foreign legislation, and then assign the sequel r ight t o t he o riginal a utho r. On the nature of sequel right and its restriction. The first question is the nature of the sequel right. From the perspective of the right essence, moral rights embodied respect for the author's personality. However the sequel right has more influence on the author's subsequent creation of the original, so it is preferably classified as economic right. The second question is the restriction of right. In order to balance the interests between t he o riginal a nd t he s equel, t he s equel right i s suggested to be taken into statutory license. As sequel is in fact done by others independently, in the real world, the original copyright holder is hardly able to control the behavior in advance. In addition, the statutory licensing models without prior approval can not only reduce the cost of transaction information, but also reduce the costs of negotiations; thus greatly increase the possibility of cooperation between the two parties. Meanwhile, as the sequel does use intellectual achievement of the original work, and enjoy the positive externalities of the original work, so it shall pay reasonable compensation.

1992年7月, 沈阳春风文艺出版社出版发行了鲁兆明创作的 《围城之后》. 钱钟书先生认为, 鲁兆 明未经许可擅自作续, 侵犯了其著作权. 由此引发了学者对续写及相关问题的讨论. 随着网络以及 影视业的发展, 续写已经不再单纯局限于小说, 更是扩展到影视作品等领域, 在此背景下. 续写该 如何定性?续写利益是否能权利化?续写利益归属谁?续写权利化之后的行使方式?等等问题的探讨, 就具有重要的理论价值和实践意义. 中国学者在探讨续写有关问题时, 多数侧重于续写一方进行论述. 笔者认为, 应兼顾原作和续写 双方的立场, 在现行著作权法框架下进行分析. 第一, 续写与原作的独创性. 续写, 即在已有作品的 基础上独立创作而成的新作品. 因此, 续作吸收了原作中的智力成果, 对原作品具有依附性. 但同 时, 续作又是续写者独立思维的结果, 构成一部新的具有独创性的作品. 第二, 续写与原作的著作 权及限制. 续写并没有对原作品本身进行改动, 而作品的“未来” 不属于保护作品完整权、改编权的 调整范围. 所以, 续写没有侵害原作的保护作品完整权、改编权；合理使用制度的目的在于确保公 众对社会信息的知悉权, 确保公众能够接近受著作权保护的作品. 即从作品中获得思想、素材、知 识和信息, 而续写属于对原作的利用范畴, 因此不宜定性为合理使用. 续写利益的权利归属. 中国著作权法从立法之初至今, 对续写的规制持续空白. 但随着实务中纠 纷的发生, 续写已成为无法回避的问题. 因此, 需要在充分论证的基础上, 明确续写利益的权利归 属. 续写利益具有权利化特征, 符合权利化要件, 因此, 续写利益权利化具有正当性. 并且, 续写利 益权利化有利于定纷止争, 所以, 中国应在借鉴美国等国外立法例的基础上, 将续写权配置给原作 著作权人. 续写权的性质与限制. 第一, 续写权的性质. 从权利本质来看, 著作人身权体现的是对作者人格的尊重. 而续写更多地 是影响作者对原作的后续创作开发, 所以, 续写权适宜定性为著作财产权. 第二, 续写权的限制. 为了平衡原作和续作的利益, 建议将续写权纳入法定许可范畴. 由于续写在 事实上是由他人独立完成的行为, 客观现实生活中, 原作著作权人对此难以事先控制. 此外, 无须 事先许可的法定授权模式, 不仅减少了交易的信息成本, 而且减少了谈判成本, 使双方当事人合作 成功交易的可能性大为增加. 但同时, 由于续写作品利用了原作品中的智力成果, 享受了原作品的 正外部性, 所以应当为此支付对价.

From the end of 1978, the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the State Council have begun to reform the rural land management system. At the end of 1983, the two-tier management system that combines centralized and decentralized management on the basis of household contractual management was established in rural China. The General Principle of Civil Law was the first law that acknowledged the household contractual management system. Since 1993, the Constitution began to acknowledge the household contractual management system. The Rural Land Contract Law comprehensively establishes the household contractual management system in respect of rural land. The Property Law provides officially the right to land contractual management as usufruct. After 30 years of development, more and more people recognize the defects of the household contractual management system. Since 1990s, due to a substantial reduction in the rural labor force, some households began to circulate the right to land contractual management to other units or individuals by subcontracting, leasing, exchanging, or other means. From 2000, under the background of circulation of the right to land contractual management, a number of f amily farms have been r ising in the rural areas of many provinces. Since 2008, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council promulgated several documents to support and encourage the development of family farms. The Ministry of Agriculture defines the family farm as a new agricultural management entity, which utilizes members of rural family as its main labor force, takes the agricultural management income as its main sources of income, uses the contracted land under household contract as well as land gained by circulation from other contractors to engage in large-scale, intensive and commercial agricultural production. According to a survey carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture in March 2013, the development of family farms has reached a certain scale, those family farms mainly engage in farming and breeding production, and the management scale of family farms is comparatively large. The family farm retains the core of the household contractual management system. It corresponds to the features of agricultural production and fits into the stage of economic and social development in China. It has become an effective strength to guide the appropriate scale management and to develop modern agriculture. Therefore, the family farm is regarded as the future direction of rural land reform in China. The State Council and many local governments have taken numerous policies and measures to encourage and support family farms. However, the development of family farms is also facing some difficulties. For example, how to distinguish the family farm from the large specialized household? Should all family farms be registered as enterprises? How to make family farms obtain a long-term and stable land use rights? How to make it easier for family farms to raise funds? How to develop ancillary services for family farms? These problems remain to be resolved properly in the future.

1978年之前, 中国农村长期实行高度集中统一的人民公社经营体制. 从1978年以来, 中国开始对 农村土地制度进行改革, 将集体所有的土地按人口平均分配给每个农户使用, 逐渐确立了农村土地 家庭承包经营制度. 1986年的 《民法通则》 首次从法律层面上承认了家庭承包经营制度. 1993年 《宪法》 修正案首次将农村中的家庭联产承包责任制写入宪法, 在宪法层面上确立了家庭承包经营 制度. 2002年颁布的 《农村土地承包法》 全面确立了农村土地承包经营制度. 2007年颁布的 《物权 法》 明确将土地承包经营权规定为用益物权. 自1978年以来实行的家庭承包经营制度, 对中国农村的经济、社会发展产生了重大影响, 使广大 农民获得了基本的就业和收入保障. 但是, 经过多年的发展, 家庭承包经营制度的缺陷也逐渐暴露 出来, 即不利于土地的集约化使用和大规模经营. 从1990年代以来, 由于农村劳动力大幅度减少, 一 些农户通过转包、出租、入股等方式将土地承包经营权流转给他人使用, 农村土地开始向一部分 种田能手、种粮大户集中. 在鼓励土地承包经营权流转的大背景下, 部分省市的农村自2000年以来 开始兴起一些家庭农场, 并受到当地政府的鼓励和支持. 自2008年以来, 中共中央、国务院多次出 台相关文件, 鼓励发展专业大户和家庭农场等规模经营主体. 由此, 新一轮农村土地改革开始启动. 根据农业部的定义, 家庭农场是指以农民家庭成员为主要劳动力, 以农业经营收入为主要收入来 源, 利用家庭承包土地或流转土地, 从事规模化、集约化、商品化农业生产的新型农业经营主体. 2013年3月农业部首次对全国家庭农场发展情况开展调查, 结果如下 : (1)家庭农场已初具规模. 全 国除西藏外的30个省、区、市共有符合本次统计调查条件的家庭农场87.7万个, 经营耕地面积达 到1.76亿亩. (2)家庭农场以种植、养殖业为主. (3)家庭农场生产经营规模较大, 平均经营规模达到 200.2亩. (4)一些地方注重扶持家庭农场发展, 提高管理服务水平. 中国目前的家庭农场具有以下特征 : (1)家庭农场经营者主要是农民或其他长期从事农业生产的 人员, 主要依靠家庭成员从事生产经营活动. (2)家庭农场经营的土地或者饲养的动物数量须达到 一定规模以上. (3)家庭农场以农业收入为家庭主要收入来源. (4)组织方式多样化, 家庭农场可以被 登记为个体工商户、个人独资企业、合伙企业乃至有限责任公司. (5)经营活动专业化. 农业部认为, 家庭农场保留了农户家庭经营的内核, 坚持了家庭经营的基础性地位, 适合中国的 基本国情, 符合农业生产特点, 契合经济社会发展阶段, 是农户家庭承包经营的升级版, 已成为引 领适度规模经营、发展现代农业的有生力量. 因此, 家庭农场被看作是中国农村土地改革的未来发 展方向, 中央和地方政府纷纷出台政策鼓励家庭农场的发展. 不过, 目前家庭农场的发展也面临一些难题. 例如, 如何认定家庭农场?怎样区分家庭农场与专业 大户? 家庭农场应当统一登记为企业吗? 如何使家庭农场获得长期而稳定的土地使用权? 怎样使家 庭农场比较容易地获得融资? 此类问题有待于在今后的实践中分阶段、分步骤加以解决.

Intellectual property system (IP system), as a combination oftechnology, economy and law, and a way to solve the attribution problems of “knowledge” resources, founded a profit mechanism of incentive and adjustment and brought up a large numberof inventors and entrepreneurs starting industrial revolution and creating the miracle of rapid economic growth. Therefore, IP system, which owned irreplaceable value, distinctive function and exuberant vitality, was regarded as a great creation in the process of human civilization development. However, with the flourishing and developing of knowledgeeconomy, the fundamental changes in economic structure and economic growth mode have caused many new issues of IP differing from industrial economy times completely, which include the conflicts of systematic mechanism caused by the expansion of new-type IP objects and the expansion of IP right scope, the dilemma of IP’s specific system arrangement caused by the increase of IP protection difficulties and transformation of IP implementation mode, the doubts about the inherent mechanism of interest balance because of the expansion and consolidation of IP right, as well as the antitrust issues of IP triggered by the doubts about IP’s private property and legitimate monopoly. When human society has marched into knowledge economytime from industry economy time, we begin to be confronted with many new challenges in the field of IP. Since the knowledge economy time boasts the spirit of worshipping and imbuing innovation, it is an essential way to deal with the new IP issues intheknowledge economy time by innovating IP system. Meanwhile, when IP system is not able to manage new issues such as monopoly problems of IP, it is another important way to solve new IP issues through adding the concept of new-type IP monopoly into current anti-trust legal system and keeping it under effective control.

知识产权制度是科技、 经济和法律结合的产物, 它以解决 “知识” 作为资源的归属问题的方式, 构建了一种激励与调节的利益机制, 催生了大批的发明家、企业家, 从而启动了工业革命, 创造了 经济快速增长的奇迹. 但知识经济的兴起和发展, 使社会的经济结构和经济增长方式发生了根本变 化, 与经济具有密切关系的知识产权也因此遇到了许多与工业经济时代完全不同的新问题, 主要包 括：(1)知识产权新型客体的增多与权利范围的扩大引发制度理念冲突. 由于一些新的知识产权客 体具有与以前客体完全不同的特征, 很难在传统知识产权体系中直接归类保护, 因而引起诸多困惑 与问题, 诸如计算机软件这一新型客体在专利保护与版权保护过程中的两难选择, 使软件保护问题 一直是近20年来知识产权法学界争论最多的焦点之一. 从权利范围看, 复制权扩大过程中的矛盾最 为突出, 国内外专家、学者长期以来在支持网络复制权以维护版权人利益和反对复制权扩张以保 护使用作品的公共利益之间展开了激烈的争论, 至今尚未达成共识. (2)知识产权保护难度的加大 与实施方式的变革使知识产权的特定制度安排面临两难选择. 现代高新技术, 特别是网络条件下版 权、专利权、商标权等都越来越容易受到来自各个方面的不法侵害, 传统知识产权制度中个人实 施权利的方式遇到了很大的障碍, 而且收效甚微. 适应解决知识产权保护难度加大这一问题的需 要, 对付侵权的一系列特殊的技术措施, 如防火墙技术、信息智能识别技术、信息加密技术、防泄 密技术等被大量使用. 但技术措施的版权法保护对传统版权制度带来的冲击是不可低估的, 技术措 施的合法化使版权人对版权作品的控制力越来越强, 甚至是完全排他性的控制, 从而严重损害他人 与社会公共利益. (3)知识产权的扩张与强化使其固有的利益平衡机制遭受质疑. 在几百年的知识 产权立法设计和司法实践中, 利益平衡原则作为知识产权制度的价值目标和根本指导原则发挥着 极其重要的实质性作用, 并由此构建了一整套系统的知识产权权利限制体系, 从而形成知识产权制 度中的利益平衡机制. 但随着知识经济的到来, 知识产权的扩张与强化使其天平明显向权利人倾 斜, 诸如知识产权的保护范围不断扩大、一些知识产权的保护期限被一再延长、合理使用原则逐 渐被吞噬等, 从而使非权利人及公众利益受到损害, 知识产权固有的利益平衡机制因此遭到质疑. (4)对知识产权 “私权属性” 与 “合法垄断” 的质疑引发知识产权领域的反垄断问题. 知识产权法以 赋予权利人 “合法垄断” 的方式来激励创新, 但是, 在现代科技高速发展、市场竞争异常激烈和世 界经济一体化的背景下, 知识产权决非只是作为一种激励创新的手段而存在, 其更重要的是一种竞 争工具, 往往被权利人滥用, 从而演化为垄断市场、限制竞争的工具, 背离知识产权制度设计的初 衷, 损害社会整体福利, 从而引起了人们对知识产权制度所确立的 “合法垄断” 的质疑, 运用反垄断 法控制知识产权垄断的呼声日益高涨.

In China, food safety accidents happen frequently in nearly a decade. “Sanlu milk powder incident” in 2008 and recent “cooking oil incident” have exerted a serious influence on public's health and life safety. There are a variety of reasons accounting for this phenomenon , But its main reason is that China hasn't formed a set of system, covering the entire food safety regulatory field , which should be efficient and scientific. It is a operating guarantee that the country’s food safety laws and regulations, policies and guidelines can be conducted effectively. Scientific and normative food safety regulatory system plays a vital role in reducing costs, improving the efficiency of food safety regulation, effectively preventing and dealing with food safety issues. China’s food safety regulatory system generally experienced decentralized regulation, coordinate regulatory phase and relatively centralized and unified regulation stage. China’s food safety regulatory system actually used the system which gave priority to piecewise regulation and used variety regulation as complement in the coordinating regulation stage. The implementation of the system has played an important role in preventing and solving the problems of food safety. But it also exposes many problems in practice. The problems that the cross of food safety regulatory’s authority, poor co-ordination of business as well as the insufficient resources for food safety cannot be solved in a short period of time. China’s implementing the “relatively centralized and unified network” of food safety regulatory system has catered for the trend of the development of food safety supervision system.In order to make the new food safety regulatory system smoothly implemented, the laws and regulations of food safety regulatory should be changed as soon as possible ,and a food safety commission should play a coordinate role in strengthening the business coordination between different food safety authorities and the integrated optimization of food safety regulatory resources.

在中国, 近十年来食品安全事故频发. 从2008年的 “三鹿奶粉事件” 到最近的 “地沟油事件”, 严 重影响了公众的身体健康和生命安全. 引发食品安全事故的原因是多方面的, 如食品生产经营者 的素质不高、食品行业协会的自律功能未能有效发挥、消费者的食品安全意识淡薄以及政府对食 品安全的监管水平不高等, 但究其主要原因是中国还没有形成一套涵盖整个食品安全领域的科 学、高效的食品安全监管体制. 食品安全监管体制是指关于食品安全监管机关的设置、领导从事 关系、权限分配及其运行模式. 具体来说, 食品安全监管体制所要解决的重点问题就是 “由谁来监 管”. 食品安全监管体制在整个食品安全领域无疑具有非常重要的地位. 它是国家食品安全法律法 规、政策和方针能够有效执行的组织保障. 科学、规范的食品安全监管体制, 对于降低成本, 提高 食品安全监管的效能, 有效预防和处理食品安全问题, 具有重要的意义. 中国食品安全监管体制大体上经历了分散监管阶段、协调监管阶段以及相对集中统一的监管阶 段. 2013年3月14日, 十二届全国人大一次会议通过了 《国务院机构改革和职能转变方案的决定》, 决定实施 “相对集中统一的食品安全监管体制”. 根据此次机构改革方案, 今后除了国家卫生与计划 生育委员会负责制定食品安全标准以外, 由国家食品药品监督管理总局和农业部两个部门负责食 品安全监管, 从而开始实施相对集中统一的食品安全监管体制. 2013年4月, 中国国务院发布了 《地 方改革完善食品药品监管体制的指导意见》. 意见明确指出省、市、县三级食品药品监管机构改革 原则上分别于2013年上半年、9月底和年底前完成. 在协调监管阶段中国的食品安全监管体制实际上采用的就是 “以分段监管为主、品种监管为辅” 的体制. 这一体制的实施对于预防和解决食品安全问题起到了重要的作用, 但是在实践中也暴露出了诸多问题. 食品安 全监管机关的权限交叉、业务协调不畅以及食品安全监管资源不足的问题 不可能在短时期内得以解决. 中国目前实施的 “相对集中统一” 的食品安全监管体制, 顺应了世界食品安全监管体制的发展趋 势, 有利于避免协调监管体制下不同食品安全监管机关之间相互推诿、相互扯皮的问题, 可以集中 有限的监管资源, 有效地开展食品安全监管, 真正做到对食品的全方位管理, 从而有利于提高食品 安全水平, 保障食品安全. 从中国食品安全监管体制的历史变迁来看, 不同时期的食品安全监管体制是历史形成的, 每次 体制发生变化前都有其改革的时机和现实的促进力, 具有很强的中国特色, 改革起来有很大的阻力 和难度. 因为中国初始的多部门体制已经形成了特有的权力和利益分配结构和既得利益集团. 因而 食品安全监管体制的理顺非一日之功, 需要经过较长时间的实践. 为了促使新的食品安全监管体制得以顺利实施, 应加快涉及食品安全监管的法律法规的修改, 进一步发挥食品安全委员会的协调职能, 加强不同食品安全行政机关之间的业务协调, 整合优化食 品安全监管资源.

With the rapid development of the urbanization in china, the threat from “Garbage Siege” became the problem to improve Chinese environment. Because of the lack of money, the garbage disposal charging system as an economic policy emerged. The system can not only provide funds to disposal garbage effectively, but also reduce the amount of garbage and reuse the garbage by improving the public awareness of environment protection. The purpose of this study is to discuss the necessity and reasonability of the charging system of urban living garbage disposal in China, which also provides a theoretic basis for the foundation of the system. This paper discuss: Firstly, it is very necessary to set up the charging system of urban living garbage disposal in China.1.Due to the increment of urban living garbage and shortage of capital for garbage disposal. 2. It will have practical significant to establish the charging system of urban living garbage disposal in China. Secondly, it is very reasonable to establish the charging system of urban living garbage disposal in China.1.The idea of circular economy provides the solid theoretical foundation and institutional guarantee. 2. The theory of ‘externality’is the theoretical cornerstone. 3. The quasi public goods theory laid a foundation. 4. The cost effectiveness system provide a feasible reason. 5. The foreign practices provide the useful experience.

随着中国城市化步伐的加快, “垃圾围城” 危机的显现成为中国城市环境治理面临的难题, 垃圾 处理中的资金困境, 更使垃圾收费制度作为一种经济激励手段应运而生. 中国城市生活垃圾处置收 费制度的建立不仅可以为城市生活垃圾的有效处理提供资金保障, 更能通过提高公众环保意识促 进垃圾的减量化和资源化. 本文旨在探讨中国城市生活垃圾处置收费制度的必要性和合理性, 为中 国城市生活垃圾处置收费制度的建立提供一定的理论基础. 本文认为：第一, 建立中国城市生活垃 圾处置收费制度具有必要性. 1. 基于中国城市生活垃圾的增量和垃圾处理中的资金困境, 建立中 国城市垃圾处置收费制度成为必要. 近年来, 随着中国城市化进程的加快, 垃圾产生量的迅速增长 和处理的滞后性给城市环境造成压力, 资金的短缺又形成了垃圾处理的瓶颈. 中国在垃圾处理方面 资金不足的成因主要表现在三个方面：(1)国家在垃圾处理方面的财政投入不足；(2)垃圾处理长 期被作为一项公共事务, 资金来源主要依靠政府的财政投入, 没有形成良好的市场竞争机制；(3) 资金来源渠道单一, 虽然部分城市开始实行垃圾的均量收费制度, 但因费率标准较低, 收缴率低, 所收费用不到处理费用的50%, 导致了沉重的财政负担, 也没有形成对垃圾制造者的激励. 2. 建立 中国城市生活垃圾处置收费制度具有现实意义. (1)该制度可以促进垃圾减量化和资源化；(2)该制 度也充分体现了环境法中 “污染者付费” 的基本原则；(3)该制度为垃圾处理提供稳定的资金保障 并为实现其产业化创造条件 ; (4)该制度还有助于增强公众环保意识等. 第二, 在中国, 建立城市生 活垃圾处置收费制度具有合理性. 1. 循环经济的思想和发展为垃圾处置收费制度的建立提供了坚 实的理论依据和和制度保障 ; 2. 外部性理论是建立城市生活垃圾处置收费制度的理论基石；3. 准 公共物品的供给理论为城市生活垃圾处置收费制度的建立奠定了基础；4. 制度选择上的成本有效性为城市生活垃圾 处置收费制度的可行性提供了依据；5. 国外的现实做法为中国实施城市生活垃 圾处置收费制度提供了有益的经验. 因此, 在中国建立城市生活垃圾处置收费制度具有合理性.

In patent law, an invention patent application is published early and then will have substantive examination while utility model and design patent application are only examined from format perspective. A patent application needs not only to be novel and useful but also have inventiveness. Inventiveness lies in the heart of the patent system. Inventiveness sets a more strict standa rd f or g ra nting a pa tent a nd r equires tha t a n invention as a whole should be non-obvious in light of the prior art. The original purpose of the non-obviousness makes sense in preventing those obvious inventions from enjoying monopoly and having the real invention get protected thereby promoting inventors to make their invention public to promote the development of the technology. Through the empirical analysis of patent administrative cases in our country, we find that assessing inventive step is the most prominent focus and difficulty problem, but the systematic theory and practice research on this subject matter is little. This dissertation focuses on the methods of assessing inventive step, by comparison with the United States and European patent system to find solutions. This dissertation includes three parts, the first part referred to as the theoretical part focused on the basic theoretical issues about assessing inventive step, defines inventive step and discusses its system meaning, introduces the inventive step of U.S Patent law, the European patent convention and illustrates the importance of the establishment of the system of the inventive step and significant role of inventive step criteria in patent protection. The second part discuss the mainly methods of assessing inventive step, including main influential factors and the secondary considerations. The third part presents a number of recommendations aimed to promote the objectivity, stability and unity in assessment of inventive step.

专利法规定专利授权的实质条件是发明具备新颖性、创造性和实用性. 而创造性位于专利系统 的核心地带. 其意义在于, 既能够防止显而易见的、非实质性的发明享有垄断权, 又能够使得真正 对于现有技术有贡献的发明获得专利保护, 从而促使发明人愿意公开其发明创造促进整个社会的 技术进步. 对中国专利行政案件的实证分析表明, 创造性判断是专利行政案件最突出的重点和难点, 国内 还缺乏系统的理论和事务研究. 本文围绕中国专利创造性判断中的具体方法, 通过与美国、欧洲和 日本等国进行比较, 系统地研究了专利创造性判断. 本文整体上分为三大部分, 第一章主要讨论了 专利创造性的基本理论；第二部分讨论创造性判断的具体方法, 参考的主要因素和辅助因素；第 三部分是为了促进创造性判断的客观化、稳定性和统一性, 提出的一些建议. 第一章为创造性的内涵及制度评析. 第一节分别阐述了美国专利法中的创造性, 介绍了 “非显而 易见性” 的概念、欧洲专利公约中的创造性以及中国专利法中的创造性的涵义；第二节对中国目 前专利创造性标准进行评析, 分别介绍了美国、欧洲及日本等专利强国对于创造性判断标准的改 革方向及对中国的借鉴意义. 第二章为创造性判断的方法. 确定最接近现有技术和确定发明的区别技术特征以及判断所保护 的发明对本领域的技术人员来说是否显而易见. 这部分结合中国实务案例, 美国KSR案以后确立的 创造性判断标准及方法、欧洲 “最接近现有技术”, “客观技术问题” 的确定以及非显而易见性判断 等方面, 对中国创造性判断方法进行评析. 第三章为创造性判断的辅助因素包括发明解决了人民一直渴望解决但始终 未能获得成功的技术 难题；克服技术偏见；预料不到的技术效果以及商业成功. 并介绍了辅助因素在中国行政实务中 的全面运用情况 第四章和第五章为中国专利创造性判断方法的评析和完善, 全面总结了中国创造性判断标准的 优缺点, 提出了进一步完善中国专利创造性判断标准和方法的建议.

China adopted its first comprehensive and systematic private international law on 28 October 2010 (CPILA). As a product of haste and a certain ignorance of the academic’s efforts, the new law suffers some defects and ambiguities which need clarification from the Supreme People’s Court (SPC). Therefore, SPC issued its first interpretation on the new law (Interpretation (I)) which serves as guideline for the lower People’s Courts. Interpretation (I) focuses on the loopholes and ambiguities in Chapter One of CPILA, covering a wide range of issues, eg, the definitions of ‘foreign-related civil relationship’ and ‘habitual residence’, the application of international treaties and international customs, clarification of party autonomy doctrine, choice of law of arbitration agreements, the scope of mandatory rules, proof of foreign law, etc. This article comments on the interpretations and points out the problems still remain in Interpretation (I) which have to be resolved in judicial practice in future.

中国在2010年10月28日通过了新的 《涉外民事关系法律适用法》, 该法自2011年4月1 日起施行。由于该法的制定过于仓促, 没有太多关注学者的立法草案, 还存在很多模糊 及不确定之处, 这需要由最高人民法院作出澄清和解释。2012年12月10日最高人民法 院针对该法施行中存在的问题, 发布了 《最高人民法院关于适用<涉外民事关系法律适 用法>若干问题的解释 (一)》 (《解释 (一)》, 以指导下级人民法院更好适用该法审理涉外 民商事案件。《解释 (一)》 是主要针对 《涉外民事关系法律适用法》 第一章 “总则” 中所 存在的问题而做出的, 涉及涉外民事关系和经常居所地的界定、国际条约和国际惯例 的适用、当事人意思自治原则的澄清、仲裁协议的法律适用、强制性规范的范围以及 外国法的查明等一系列问题。本文对该的解释的规定进行评论, 指出其存在的问题, 以 及在以后的司法解释中应注意的事项。

1990년 몽골은 구소련의 붕괴와 함께 시장경제체제로 전환, 개혁개방정책을 추진하였다. 그 결과 1990-2007년간 對몽골 외국인 직접 투자는 연평균 13%로 증가하였고, 규모 면에서도 1990 년 96만 5천 달러에서 2006년 3.1억 달러로 증가하여 급성장세를 이루었다. 한편 최근까지 對몽 골 외국인투자는 안정적으로 이루어지고 있으며, 특히 지난 2012년에는 31억 달러를 기록하였 다. 이에 2013년 몽골정부는 더욱더 적극적인 외국인 투자 유치를 위하여 10월 3일 국회결의로 몽골 ｢투자법｣을 제정하였다. 따라서 본 연구는 몽골의 전반적인 투자 환경을 살펴보고, 새롭게 제정된 ｢투자법｣을 중심 으로, 몽골의 투자자 유치를 위해 현재 몽골 정부가 행하고 있는 외국인 투자 및 국내 투자 유치 정책을 분석함으로써 현재 직면하고 있는 문제점과 개선방안 등을 제시하는 것을 목적으로 한다.

Foreign direct investment in Mongolia during 1990-2007 represented a 13 percent rise annually, and its investment figure jumped from $ 965,000 in 1990 to $ 310 million in 2006. By 2012, foreign investment in Mongolia kept a stable pace, scaling up to 3.1 billion in 2012. The Mongolian Assembly passed “Act on the Adjustment of foreign investment in businesses of major strategic industries” on May 17, 2012 To enact foreign investment law aiming at expanding foreign investment, the Mongolian Assembly hurriedly passed “Investment Law” on October 3, 2013. Thus, the objective of this paper is to present a view on the overall investment environment in Mongolia with newly-enacted “Investment Law” as the center, to analyze the current government policies attracting investments at home and abroad, and watch the situation.

현행헌법은 국가의 사명으로서 통일에 관한 일련의 조항을 두고 있으며, 이를 통일조항이라 고 한다. 통일조항은 통일의 과정뿐만 아니라 통일 이후의 통일국가에 대하여도 규범적 구속력 을 가진다. 그것은 현행헌법과 통일헌법 그리고 통일조항과 통일헌법간의 규범적 동일성 내지 연속성에 근거한다. 특히 통일조항에서 규정하고 있는 통일의 기본질서로서 ‘자유민주적 기본질 서’는 통일국가의 헌법적 기본질서로서 확립되며, 이로부터 통일국가의 체제와 다른 통일이전의 북한체제에 대한 법치국가적 청산의 과제가 대두된다. 한반도 통일국가의 과제로서 북한체제의 불법청산에 관한 법적 검토는, 첫째 북한의 국가성 이 전제되어야 한다. 그것은 통일독일이나 동구유럽에서 보듯이 체제불법이 한 국가의 체제를 수립 및 유지하기 위하여 행해진 일련의 행위를 의미하는 것에서 근거한다. 그리고 두 번째로 북한체제와 다른 한반도 통일국가의 체제가 수립될 것이 요구된다. 한반도 통일국가는 통일헌법 과 현행헌법과의 규범적 연속성에 따라 자유민주적 기본질서의 체제를 이룬다. 따라서 자유민주 적 기본질서에 입각한 통일국가의 체제는 북한체제와 이질적인 것으로 자유민주적 기본질서에 반하는 북한체제하의 일련의 행위에 대한 법치국가적 과제가 성립한다. 나아가 체제불법의 청산과 관련하여 우선적으로 설정되어야 할 것으로서, 그 시간적 범위를 어떻게 정할 것인가 하는 것이다. 체제불법의 개념적 요소로서 체제의 수립과 유지를 위한 행위 라는 것에서 북한체제의 수립을 위한 과정을 포함하여 통일시점까지로 설정되어야 한다. 그리고 청산되어야 할 대상적 범위로서는 자유민주적 기본질서의 요소에 반하는 일련의 행위가 포함된다. 그 다음으로 어 떠한 구제조치의 방법으로 해결하여야 할 것인가 하는 문제이다. 여기에는 청산되어야 할 대상에 따라 보상, 명예회복, 복권, 원물반환 등의 방법이 고려될 수 있다. 이와 같은 체제불법청산의 해결과제는 전적으로 통일의회의 입법자의 의무영역으로서, 입법자는 통 일헌법에 근거한 입법을 통하여 해결하여야 할 의무를 부담한다.

Current constitution and uni-constitution have legal continuity. This legal continuity is based on the preamble of constitution. It prescribes that this constitution is established on 1948. 7.12. and revised 8 times. The provision of unification on current constitution has an effect on uni-constitution, because the provision of unification and uni-constitution have legal continuity. The provision of unification prescribes the principle, the fundamental order of unification. It prescribes the peaceful methode as the principle of unification and liberal-democratic fundamental order as the fundamental order of unification. Uni-constitution have to be prescribed as the fundamental contents which are accorded with liberal-democratic fundamental. The illegal conduct for System is occurred from the system of uni-constitution which is based on the system of liberal-democratic fundamental order. The illegal conduct has to be solved for the constitution government which has to be built up in uni-korea. The solution on illegal conduct for system is assigned as the obligation of the law-maker in uni-korea. The unification provision has the above function for uni-constitution in according to its legal meaning.

현행법상 부동산 유치권의 문제점으로는, 공시방법의 부적절하다는 점, 담보물권의 성립순위 에 대한 질서를 파괴한다는 점, 담보물권에 대한 소멸주의의 원칙에 위배된다는 점, 강제집행의 불안정하다는 점, 부동산의 사용가치를 제한한다는 점, 무엇보다도 허위 또는 가장유치권의 행 사로 유치권을 악용하고 있다는 점 등을 들 수 있다. 이와 같은 부동산 유치권의 문제점에 해결 하기 위해서 많은 해석론과 입법론이 제시되기도 하였다. 이를 바탕으로 최근 민법 개정안의 제시로, 기존에 제기되었던 부동산 유치권의 문제점이 일정 부분 해소될 것으로 보여진다. 특히 부동산 유치권의 경우 미등기부동산에 대한 강제매각절차가 보장되지 않고, 매각철차에 서 매수인에게 사실상 인수하도록 하고 있었기 때문에, 특히 건축이 중단된 미등기 부동산을 둘러싼 유치권의 분쟁은 소유권자, 유치권자, 저당권자, 일반채권자, 매수인 등 불특정 다수의 이해관계인 사이에 첨예하게 대립하고 있다. 따라서 개정안이 사실상 인수주의를 소멸주의로 입법정책을 바꾼 것은 근본적으로 타당하다고 하겠다. 그러나 부동산 유치권제도를 근본적으로 인정하지 않고 폐지하고자 하는 개정방향은 문제가 있다고 본다. 왜냐하면 대규모 아파트 리모델링처럼 등기된 부동산의 경우에도 거액의 피담보채 권이 유치권과 결부되어 있는 경우가 많고, 구조물의 고급화 현상으로 고급레스토랑을 비롯하여 각 종 위락시설 및 편의시설의 내부공사비 채권이 거액인 경우도 많은데, 이런 경우 유치권을 인정하지 않게 되면 결국 그 피해는 건축이나 건설공사 수급인인 공사업자의 몫이 될 것이다. 결국 부동산유치권을 폐지하려는 개정방향은 가장 직접적인 이해당사자인 건설업계의 사정 을 고려하지 않은 잘 못된 입법방향으로 이에 대한 재고가 필요하다 할 것이다.

According to the Right of Retention under the Bill of the Civil Law Amendment passed by the Civil Law Amendment Commission, major issues are abolishing the right of retention on real estate, reducing the coverage of claim secured, establishing both the system of right to demand establishing hypothec and the right of retention of non registration on real estate within a certain period, extinguishing right to demand establishing hypothec, and adopting principle of extinction under the process of auction. However, among other things, abolishing the right of retention on real estate is unreasonable in that it disregard the facts that there are lots of legal dispute regarding architect construction fees. Reducing the coverage of claim secured conflicts with the bi-theory confirmed by the Supreme Court, thereby being against legal stability. Extinguishing right of retention and right to demand establishing hypothec if the right to demand establishing hypothec is not done within the period is not proper due to conflict with the principle of appendant nature security real right. In addition, it is improper to acknowledge right to demand establishing hypothec as regards claim to recover damages derived from objects since it is likely to conflict with structure liability under Article 758 of the Civil Law. However, it is considered very positive that the principle of extinction is adopted at the process of auction.

납세자의 권리를 보호하는 다양한 방안들이 있지만 납세자 스스로 자신의 권리를 가장 직접 적이고 확실하게 보장할 수 있는 제도는 경정청구권이다. 하지만 이러한 경정청구권과 관련하여 많은 문제점이 있으며 그 중 행사기간과 사유가 대표적이다. 우선 경정청구권의 행사기간이 매우 짧다. 통상적 경정청구권의 행사기간은 3년이지만 국가 의 과세권은 상속세 및 증여세의 경우에 15년이고 기타 세목의 경우 10년의 제척기간을 두고 있는 등 상대적으로 길다. 더욱이 법정채권으로 부당이득 반환청구권의 행사기간이 10년이고 국가를 상대로 하는 경우 5년인 것과 비교하면 납세자의 경정청구권 행사기간을 3년으로 규정한 것은 부당하다. 또한 외국의 입법례가 과세권과 청구권의 행사기간이 유사하기 때문에 우리나라 만 양자의 기간을 달리 규정할 이유가 없다. 따라서 과세권과 청구권 행사기간의 균형을 유지하 기 위하여 5년 또는 10년의 범위 안에서 기간을 연장할 필요가 있다. 다음으로 후발적 경정청구권 행사사유인 해제의 경우 법정 해제와 약정해제 뿐만 아니라 합 의해제를 포함하여야 한다. 다만, 선의의 제3자의 권리를 침해하지 않도록 “① 조세회피 가능성 이 없거나 ②계약관계를 방해할 목적이 없거나 ③ 채무변제 회피사유가 없는 등 부득이한 사유” 라는 구체적인 사항을 입법하여야 한다. 또한 이처럼 구체적 사유를 제시하는 것이 납세자가 청구권을 명확하게 행사하는데 도움이 될 것으로 보인다. 마지막으로 위헌결정이 경정청구권 행사사유에 포함되는지 여부이다. 통상적 경정청구권의 경우 청구사유를 구체적으로 명시하고 있지 않기 때문에 포괄적으로 허용되어야 하지만 후발적 경정청구권의 경우 행사사유가 열거되어 있어 위헌결정이 포함되는지가 문제된다. 결론적으로 과세관청과 납세자의 권리관계는 일반 사인간의 관계와 달리 불합리한 법률적용으로 발생한 왜곡된 권리관계를 바로잡는다는 측면에서 위헌결정을 청구권 행사사유로 인정하여야 한다. 일본의 경우에 위헌결정 자체로 인하여 경정청구권의 소급적 효력을 직접 인정할 수는 없지만 판례의 취지상 확정 및 종료된 사안이 아닌 경우에는 소급적 효력을 인정하는 것으로 볼 수 있고 이를 참고하여 위헌결정의 소급효를 청구권 행사사유로 인정하여야 한다. 수많은 세무정보와 체계적 조세행정시스템을 보유한 과세관청과 비교하여 납세자는 열악한 지위를 가지고 있다. 따라서 과세관청의 부과권과 대비되는 납세자의 청구권은 광범위하고 치밀 하게 보장되어야 할 것이다.

There are many ways for saving the rights of the taxpayer in the tax organization. Among the methods, the correctional claim system is the best way to get the refund of a tax paid by accident, but it has many problems. First, the claim period is very short to save the right of taxpayer. Usually the governments levy a t axati on on the taxpayers for a t least 5 years and the l argest 1 5 years. However the taxpayers request the refund just for 3 years. So i t i s have to be changed between 5 years and 10 years. Second, the agreement cancellation must be an one among a variety of the correctional claim reasons. If the agreement cancellations are not confirmed, the right of the taxpayer is infringed in this system compared to other cancellation reasons. So the agreement cancellations are approved strictly under the condition of the right relief. Third, the retroaction of the unconstitutionality decisions has to be included by the correctional system's reason. Because the reason of the right to rectification is so narrow, the claim reason must be wider for saving the right of a taxpayers. On the conclusion, in response to the tax right of the nation a right of tax payers must be protected. If above all the three reasons are legislated or improved, the taxpayer can use his right surely and the tax administrations levy on the taxation to the taxpayer correctly. If this happen, both the principle of legal taxation and the property right are protected.

사법부의 존재의의는 국민의 신뢰에서 찾을 수 있다. 법관은 법정이라는 소통의 장(場)에서 절차적⋅실체적 정의를 찾기 위해서 부단히 노력하여야 한다. 그 과정에서 잘못된 것이 있다면 비판을 받아야 하고, 이를 수용하여 끊임없이 개선하여야 한다. 신뢰받는 사법부는 우선 판결문 을 통한 성실함으로써 완성될 수 있고, 국민에게 평가를 받을 수 있을 것이다. 이런 판결문은 국민과의 소통수단이며 판결문 자체로도 무수히 반복해 읽히고 인용되는 한 사회의 규범으로써 영향력이 큰 만큼, 신중하면서도 좀 더 적극적인 개선 노력이 필요하다는 지적이 나온다. 그러나 실제로 우리의 판결문을 보건대 미흡한 점이 많다. 즉 너무 어려운 법조문을 이유로 일반인인 경우 내용을 읽어봐도 이해가 되지 않는 부분이 있으며 긴 문장 및 난해한 표현 등으로 시민에 대한 사법부의 역할을 다하기에는 부족한 점이 많다. 더욱이 문장이 어려움은 전문용어 라 양해를 한다하더라도 실제로 판결문은 갈등 내지는 다툼을 해결하는 결론을 적어 표현한 글인데 어느 근거로 무슨 의견인지 조차 제대로 이해하기 어렵게 애매모호하기 책임회피식으로 기술되어 사법 서비스에 막대한 지장을 초래하기에 이르렀다. 심지어는 기본적으로 판결문에 당연히 기술되어야할 증거요지를 누락하여 창피를 당하기도 하였다. 그러므로 형사소송법에서 요구하고 있는 판결문의 구성요건은 과연 무엇이고 이는 독일 및 미국과 비교하여 어떤 차이점 이 있는가를 비교 검토하고 이를 제대로 지키고 있는지 여부도 확인하였다. 이제 법적 패러다임 이 바뀌어야 한다. 배심원제가 시행되고, 법률시장이 국제적으로 개방되었다. 논리적 이론과 기법을 바탕으로 한 토론의 분위기는 법적 논쟁을 위해 문화적 배경에 상관없이 개발되고 있다. 적극적인 법 수사학의 적용이 이에 대한 좋은 해법인 것이다. 그러므로 법 수사학에 관한 연구의 필요성은 더욱 증대된다. 이런 배경으로 현대에 들어와서 변화가 있었다. 즉 고전적인 아리스토텔레스의 수사학을 지나고 키케로의 웅변 수사학을 통해 페렐만의 신수사학으로 발전 하였다. 신수사학은 논쟁시 “보편청중”의 설득에 주안점을 두고 상대방을 설득하려는 논증을 그 중심으로 다루고 있다. 즉 신수사학은 한마디로 논증을 기본으로 결론을 도출하는 과정부터 완전히 논리적인 근거를 바탕으로 보편 청중을 설득하는 것을 그 핵심으로 하고 있다. 우선 법정에서 사건을 맡은 양 당사자측이 진실을 가리기 위해 자신의 주장이 상대편보다 더 개연성 이 있다는 사실을 법관 혹은 배심원에게 설득하는 과정에서 법수사학적 논증이 절대 필요하며, 추후 법관도 본인이 결정내린 주장에 대하여 당사자는 물론 보편청중을 포함한 미래의 관계자 에게까지 정당성을 근거로 한 판결문을 통해 설득하는 논증이 요구되는 것이다. 법수사학이 필요한 이유가 바로 여기에 있다. 그러므로 결론적으로 판결문의 법수사학적 연구는 현재 진행 하고 있는 판결문 쉽게 쓰기의 단계를 바탕으로 결론에 도달하는 논증을 주안점을 두고 주장보 다는 보편청중에 대한 설득을 강조하는 신수사학적인 판결문으로 변화되어야할 것을 강조하는 바이다.

Das schriftliche Urteil ist ein Dokument, das deklariert, wer im Recht und wer im Unrecht ist. Wegen der großen Bedeutung, die ein Urteil besitzt, müssen unbedingt die Gründe für diese Entscheidung genannt werden. Die Schwierigkeit der Anfertigung eines schriftlichen Urteils liegt darin, dass man nicht nur das richtige Urteil fällen, sondern auch die plausiblen Beweggründe vorlegen muss, die dieses Urteil rechtfertigen. Der Richter spricht durch das Urteil. Zu den Aufgaben des schriftlichen Urteils in einem Fall gehören zum Einen das Verwirklichen der Gerechtigkeit des Gesetzes durch das unparteiische Gericht, zum Anderen aber auch die Rolle, die jeweiligen Parteien von dem Urteil der Justizbehörde zu überzeugen. Wenn das Urteil jedoch die Unparteilichkeit verletzt oder die Betroffenen nicht überzeugen kann, wird es auf Mißtrauen der Beteiligten stoßen. Ein schriftliches Urteil sollte ideralerweise als Mittel der Kommunikation zwischen dem Gericht und dem Volk dienen. Für den normalen Bürger ist es jedoch nicht einfach, das Urteil zu verstehen. Denn es enthält meistens voll von Begriffen und komplizierten Phrasen, die nur im Gerichtssaal verwendet werden. Ein derart unverständlich geschriebenes Urteil ist eines der Faktoren, die das Gericht zu einem “heiligen Territorium” machen, dem sich ein normaler Bürger nur schwer nähern kann. Man wird bei dem schwer verständlichen Urteil nur die Kluft zwischen dem Normalbürger und den Justizbeamten feststellen. Was schwer ist, heißt nicht zugleich autoritär. Das Urteil verständlich zu machen, könnte auch ein Stück Demokratisierung des Gerichtshofs bedeuten. Beim Urteil sollte die “Sprache der Richter” in die “Sprache der Bürger” umgewandelt werden. Der Richter sollte sich also stets um die Verbesserung des schriftlichen Urteils bemühen, z. B. durch Verwendung leicht verständlicher Sätze, um so besserem Verständnis des Volkes beizutragen. Das Urteil ist zudem eine Logik. Die Ordnung und Sicherheit der Justizgemeinschaft werden nur auf gesundem Menschenverstand und Logik Bestand haben, die sich auf konkrete Richtigkeit und juristische Sicherheit gründen. Nur dann kann jeder in der juristischen Gemeinschaft dem Urteil des Richters vertrauen und akzeptieren. Das Urteil muss angenommen anstatt aufgezwungen werden. Es darf nicht sein, dass der normale Bürger große Schwierigkeiten beim Verstehen von ohnehin verwickelten Realitätsverhältnissen und komplizierten Rechtsverhältnissen hat. Deshalb muss ein Justizbeamter einen Prozess lösen, indem er eine klare Begründung über das Urteil vorlegt. Ansonsten läuft er die Gefahr, dass man einige Zweifel hegt, die unverständlichen Floskeln und die langen Schachtelsätze veim Urteil seien nichts anderes als die zwangsläufige Folge der Unsicherheit beim Urteilfällen. Das amerikanische Gericht verwendet prinzipiell keine schwierigie lateinische Wörter, sondern fasst das schriftiliche Urteil meist in Alltagssprache ab, so dass es jeder leicht verstehehn kann. Die Justizbehörde kann beim Überzeugen nur durch sichtliches Bemühen das Vertrauen des Bürgers gewinnen. Jetzt ist der Zeitpunkt gekommen, wo aktive Kommunikation der Gerichtsbeamten und des Gerichtshofes mit dem Bürger gewünscht ist. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, bedarf es der wissenschaftlichen Annäherung. Juristische Rhetorik ist ein Gebiet der Wissenschaft, die die juristischen Inhalte effektiver zu überzeugen versucht. Wie beispielsweise dem Arzt eine Aufklärungspflicht auferlegt ist, so hat der Justizbeamte auch die Pflicht gegenüber dem Betroffenen, das Urteil mit den zugehörigen Beweggründen zu erläutern. Die Rhetorik, die die beteiligten Parteien im Gericht zum Durchsetzen ihrer Meinungen als Überredungskunst angewendet haben, war seit alters her ein nützlicher Wissenschftszweig. Die vorliegende Abhandlung hat zum Forschungsziel, zum einen aus dem Blickwinkel des kontinentalen positiven geschriebenen Rechts und zum anderen aus dem Blickwinkel des englisch-amerikanischen negativen Rechts jeweils die Vorzüge und Mängel zu betrachten und analytisch zu vergleichen, um schließlich daraus die Bedeutung der Rhetorik sowie deren effektive Methoden abzuleiten. Hierzu werden als kontinentalrechtliches Land Deutschland und als amerikanisch Land die USA gegenübergestellt und jeweils auf ihr schriftliches Urteil in Bezug auf den Inhalt sowie die Stellungnahme untersucht und anschließend ein zeitgemäßes effektiveres Musterbeispiel überlegt. Der zu untersuchende Gerichtsprozessbereich wird vor allem auf den strafrechtlichen Prozess beschränkt und der Verständnisgrad des Bürgers über ein schriftliches Urteil eingehend studiert.