Earticle

The purpose of the "seven mode theory" in Akhakkwebom (a musical treatise compiled in 1493) was to present a theory that included all modes in hyangak pieces (or "native" pieces) of the Choson period. However, discrepancies between some parts of this early writing and actual facts in music history raised some questions. An analysis of the "seven mode theory" and records in Akhakkwebom relating to this theory revealed that descriptions of hyangak instruments (or "native" instruments) were either exaggerated or distorted. For example, the instrument presented for the taegum (large, transverse flute) description was actually chunggum (middle, transverse flute), and unrealistic drawings of the komungo (six-stringed zither) and the kayagum (twelve-stringed zither) were included in the treatise as well. Thus, when studying theoretical systems presented in Akhakkwebom they must be examined carefully and critically.

In this study, by researching and analyzing the ku?m (口音) in the musical instruments of Korea, the kinds, the functions and the meanings of the ku?m were specified and compared to the ku?m in the instruments of Korea. And the results are followings. The korean musical instruments using ku?m are the string instruments such as k?mun'go, kayag?m, yangg?m, the wind instruments such as taeg?m, p'iri, haeg?m, saengbwang and the percussion instruments such as changgu, puk, kkwaenggwari. The k?nun'go ku?m is used the most widely and effectively in Korea and expresses various styles of playing according to the initial sound, the middle sound, the last sound, playing technic system (彈法), string system (絃法) and fingering system (指法). It has the most branched and structured ku?m in Korea. 1his means that the k?mun'go ku?m has a lot of ways to express sound. The kayag?m and yangg?m have a similar ku?m with the ku?m of k?mun'go, but it is simpler than the ku?m of k?mun'go. In other words, the ku?m of kayag?m and yangg?m has less ways to express sound than the ku?m of k?mun'go. The ku?m of taeg?m kept the whole ku?m system of the musical instrument in the days of 『K? mhapjabo』(琴合字譜, Music Score). but the whole structure of the ku?m of taeg?m isn't known because it is used partially for some special melodies and signs today. p'iri has the ku?m system according to the sound consisting of a musical piece, but the ku?m is different along with the genre of the musical piece. And so there can't be ku?m covering all sounds. It is noted that the ku?m of p'iri is the standard ku?m of wind instruments including taeg?m and haeg?m. The baeg?m doesn't have various usages of ku?m and the ku?m system of p'iri except the initial sound ku?m. Changgu ku?m, introduced in Old Music Score and used in Classical Music (正樂), has just 5 or 6 ways and the simple function. But the present ku?m has various and complex ways as the style of play changgu in Folk Music (民俗樂) and Samullori was expanded. Especially the various ways to play the changgu demand the new kinds of ku?m which distinguish the accents of sound. On the other hand, the ku?m used in puk for P'ansori was noticed due to popularization of the P'ansori. Buk ku?m is similar with the changgu ku?m but it has smaller number of kinds and the playing style is simple. The kkwaenggwari (small gong) ku?m is used in Samullori but doesn't have many kinds of it. The similar usage with Korean ku?m is shown in the ryuteki (龍笛) and p'iwa (琵琶) in Japan. But the function is simply to indicate a certain note and string and not related with the playing style. So it is different from that of Korea which distinguish the playing styles of various musical instruments and other aspects such as string system, fingering system and stress. In short, the ku?m in the musical instruments of Korea are various in its kinds and its functions according to the string instruments, the wind instruments, the percussion instruments. The ku?m is correlated with the style of each musical instrument. The korean ku?m is the unique musical notation which shows and distinguishes every factors related with the playing styles such as playing technic system, string system, fingering system of the string instruments and hit point, stress, expressions and so on of the percussion instruments.

In this treatise, in order to derive the feature of Korean Eastern folksong, I tried to search the musical characteristics by comparing the existing researches related to the folksong of Kyungsangdo, Kangwondo and Hamkyungdo, with thirty-four pieces of Hamkyungdo labor song(work song) recorded in two folksong book of 「JO-SEON MINYO BACGOKJIB」 and 「JO-SEON MINJOKEUMAK JEONJIB」. The researching result mentioned the above is as follows. 〈Musical Features in Hamkyeongdo Folksong〉 1. In short, there are Menaritory, Kyeongseotory and extraneous musical factor are mixed in Hamkyeongdo folksong(labor song). That is, it is certified that Menaritory circle is the mainstream in traditional labor folksongs among Hamkyeongdo folksongs. 2. Singosantaryeong can be classified into Menaritory and Kyeongtory(the second Kyeongtory) according to the point of view. 3. It is found that the progressing feature of shouting from high to low tone. 4. The folksongs under the category of Dondolnaly can be construed into New Folksong or the folksong relating to Changga. 5. The compass of Hamkyeongdo labor songs is about one octave from lower 'mi' to higher 'mi'. 6. It has three scale structure that the five sound, the four sound and upper compass are limitedly used. 〈Musical Features in Eastern Folksong〉 1. There is Asayongtory which is the intermediate form of Kyeongtory and Menaritory. 2. There are three kinds of singing skill. One is shouting, the other is sounding plain and the third is sounding lower. 3. It has four tone in going-up, five tone in going-down and non-hemitonic scale. 4. It is the intermediate form of Yukjabagitory and Menaritory.(Kyeongnam province folksong, shamanic songs) 5. It is found the intermediate form of Menaritory and Susimgatory.(a boating song on Han river) 6. It has a tendencies to progress going-down from "Re" to "Do", and from "Ra" to "Mi" by way of "Sol". 7. Comparing to the other tories, the distribution area of Menaritory is very wide. 8. It can be found the form of Menari with heroic airs of Kyeongsangdo rather than sorrowful emotions.(long song in MoonKyeong weeding song) 9. There are midway cadence completed by "Mi" and perfect cadence completed by "Ra".

1. The musical characteristics of Jeonbuk hyangje pungnyu When comparing hyangje pungnyu in Jeonbuk area to gyeongje, there is no difference on musical scale but there is a little difference on melodies or pitches of used tones. The difference between gyeongje and hyangje can be definitely found in the melodies of the wind instruments rather than that of the string instruments. In the case of geomungo performance, several performance techniques such as jeonseong, toeseong and chuseong are more used in hyangje, performed in Iri, Jeongeub and Gurye. Also, the melodies of hyangje is more complicated than that of gyeongje since several ornament notes are added and rhythmic patterns are more subdivided in hyangje. When comparing hyangje pungnyu in Jeonbuk area that has been transmitted in Iri and Jeongeub to Gurye pungnyu in Jeonnam area and the pungnyu that has been transmitted by several sanjo players, there are some differences on movement and melodic structures. The rhythmic patterns are similar but triple rhythmic patterns are changed to duple patterns in some sections of Taryeong and Gunak. The pungnyu in Iiri and Gurye are similar to each other but among them that of Iri is more similar to gyeongje. Naepoje is also similar to gyeongje and it is also similar to pungnyu in Iri and Gurye. However, the pungnyu in Jeongeup, performed by Won Gwangho, shows small differences from that of Iri and Gurye. 2. The transmission history of the hyangje pungnyu in Jeonbuk area In the late Chosun period, several yulhoe were organised by middle class people even in countryside and pungnyugaek were spreaded from the middle class to commoners. In the Japanese colonial period, the Julpungnyu was very prevailed. This reason was that many wealthy people organised pungnyu clubs in the situation of political oppression. In such circumstances, they organised yulgye rather than they just gathered in yulbang. Such pungnyu clubs have continued to 1980s in several areas, however, today it can be found in only few areas in Iri and Jeongeup of Jeonbuk area and Gurye of Jeonnam area. The melodies of hyangje pungnyu is not fixed as that of gyeongje. The reason of this is that the holders of cultural asset retain various performing melodies and there are some differences according to each lineage. In conclusion, the hyangje pungnyu had been transmitted with differences and various musical characteristics according to lineages and regions. However, in the recent period such differences and the regional characteristics has been disappeared because of the social intercourse of yulgaek and the interchange of several pungnyu clubs.

I supposed a scale among the notes of the Kunak. I chosen notes of the scale then examined the function of each note. The key of the Kunak is different the first and second line of the Kunak, which is called Doljang, from the rest of the Kunak. The key of the former is a Whangjonggung-Pyoungjo. The key of the latter isa Yeemjonggung-Pyoungjo. The key of the Kunak was known as a Whangjonggung-Pyoungjo, a Yeemjonggung-Pyoungjo. It means not the Key of the Kunak is a Whangjonggung-Pyoungjo, or a Yeemjonggung-Pyoungjo but the Key of the Kunak's first and second line is a Whangjonggung-Pyoungjo, and the rest of the Kunak is a Yeemjonggung-Pyoungjo. The treatise, "the relationship Kunak-Taryoung of Youyegee and current Kunak" was published in 1962. The paper was written that the Key of the Kunak was Taejoogung-Pyoungjo. The key of the Kunak has been known as Taejoogung-Pyoungjo since 1962. Now I have found a conclusion that the Key of the Kunak The key of the Kunak is different the first and second line of the Kunak ,which is called Doljang, from the rest of the Kunak. The key of the former is a Whangjonggung-Pyoungjo. The key of the latter is a Yeemjonggung-Pyoungjo.

With the interest on the historical change of 12 Gasa(歌詞), I have made researches into Gilgunak, Chunmyeongok(春眠曲), Gwonjuga(勸酒歌), and Hwangjusa(黃鷄詞). In this article, I focused on the historical aspects of Cheosaga(處士歌) and Yanaga(襄陽歌). The summary of this article follows; First, current Cheosaga and Yangyangga are the same songs with different words. Second, Cheosaga recorded in [Geumbo琴譜] has no relationship with current Cheosaga. Instead it is similar to Sangsabyeolgok(相思別曲) in [Geumbo琴譜]. Current Cheosaga is different from current Sangsabyeolgok, but same as Yangyangga. From this, it is possible to presume that Cheosaga in [Geumbo琴譜] was falsely recorded or adapted the melody of current Yangyangga instead of its own melody. Third, Yangyangga in [Ayangguembo峨洋琴譜] is the record of the melody sung by women. It is similar to current Yangyangga. But, the ending part of the 7th line of Yangyangga in [Ayangguembo峨洋琴譜] differs from the same part of current Yangyangga. Forth, many kinds of books were published in 1910s which included Cheosaga and Yangyangga. Cheosaga was more popular than Yangyangga in public. In conclusion, current Cheosaga and Yangyangga hold the same melody in common, and the melody had related with the melody of Yangyangga in [Ayangguembo峨洋琴譜].

Chihwapyeong(致和平) is recorded in the Chronicles of Sejong, from chapter 140 to 144. The musical structure of Chihwapyeong 1ㆍ2ㆍ3 is divided into two categories, Chihwapyeong 1ㆍ2 and Chihwapyeong 3. In Chihwapyeong 1ㆍ2, the Korean lyrics of Yongbieocheonga(龍飛御天歌) are sung in different style but the scores are same. In Chihwapyeong 3, the 125 stanzas of Yongbieocheonga are divided into three parts(See table 2-6). The rhythmic structure of Chihwapyeong 1ㆍ2ㆍ3 is that of repetition in accordance with the division of sections. The rhythmic structures of Chihwapyeong 1ㆍ2ㆍ3 are categorized into six kinds of types. The first is the structure which is composed of eight lines of 32 squares. The second type is composed of seven lines, the third, six lines, the fourth, five lines, the fifth, four lines an the sixth, three lines.

Korean shaman ritual, called gut, is a cultural performance which exhibits the ways in which the cultural artifacts and tradition are organized and transmitted on particular occasions through specific media. The gut is one of the most concrete observable units of cultural structure and symbolism. The tripartite organization if applied to the organization of the gut. The overall organization of gut consists of three phases of Bujeong (purification), main stages, and Duitjeon (sequence for lingering ghosts). The shaman's costumes demarcate the three phases; the shaman wears the normal dress during the first ad the last stages while she wears spiritual costumes during the main stages. The main stages of gut are composed of three phases to invite the deities, to revere and entertain them, and to pacify the spirits. The invoked deities are segregated during the three phases; those worshiped during the first and the last phases are imagined ones while those venerated during the middle phase are represented by shaman paintings. A sequence, called geori, normally is divided into three phases to usher deities, to revere and entertain them, and to send them The shaman's songs divide the three phases. In short, three hierarchical levels are implicit in Korean gut; the entire gut, within the main stage of the gut, and within a geori. Three symbolic codes function as the demarcation of these tripartite organizations: costumes, painting(icons), and music respectively. The highest (most obvious) level is marked by a tangible symbol, the middle level is by cerebral and imaginable symbols, and the lowest (most basic) level by an audible symbol.

The present paper studies and analyzes the gakpil marks engraved in Jijanggyeong, an eighteenth century publication preserved by Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies. Its conclusion contains basically four results, which are described in detail, respectively. First, total of 152 gakpil marks are found in Jijanggyeong. Gakpil refers to letters, marks, and images engraved in the paper using tools such as ivory or sharp bamboo. Unlike brush writing, gakpil can only be read under special lighting as the engravings bear no color. Gakpil marks appearing in Jijanggyeong can be classified into three groups according to their physical length: long marks crossing three or more vertical lines, medium length crossing from one and half to two vertical lines, and short marks less than one vertical line. The majority of gakpil marks are of the short length. Second, gakpil marks can be categorized into straight, curved, and waved. The study concludes that most of gakpil marks (80.7%) belong to curved category. Third, in comparison with the Hakase, the Japanese notation of Buddhist music, the gakpil marks in Jijanggyeong show strikingly similar forms and rules -- notations representing melodies by the means of lines marked next to the text. Based on this finding, the paper concludes that gakpil marks in Jijanggyeong represent melodies and were used to read the Sutra. Hence, the belief that notation of Buddhist music did not exist in Korea proves to be wrong. On the contrary, various marks were used to note melodies as early as eighteenth century. Finally, similar marks as the gakpil in Jijanggyeong have been found in twenty-four other documents, including Panbiryangron, a copy from the eighth century, currently preserved by Otani University in Kyoto. Other documents are copies from the tenth to the eighteenth centuries. The fact that gakpil marks were used in notating melodies in the Sutra critically challenges the uniqueness of Hakase. Furthermore, the present paper argues, through its study of gakpil marks, that such notation technique had already existed in Korea before Hakase initially appeared in Japan.

Music is a vital part of all cultures past and present. This unique form of communication conveys instruction and facilitates rituals and religious ceremonies as well as entertains. Artifacts and ancient texts reveal that the people of ancient Korea wove music into nearly every aspect of society. Archaeomusicology, also known as music archaeology, is a discipline that specifically explores past music cultures through archaeological artifacts and texts. This field of study provides a unique lens through which to research and comprehend previous societies and lifeways. Although archaeomusicology is a burgeoning discipline, scholars have been researching musical aspects of the Ancient Korea. Early studies of music and instruments focused on textual analyses, but they were nonetheless the embryos of archaeomusicology. Written explorations of musical instruments mentioned and described in ancient texts date to as early as the 19th century. Some of the first recorded works include Kim Jeong-hi who was the korean master of epigraphy. Archaeological data were not a major part of their studies in Korea; yet, these pioneering scholars established a solid foundation for the field. We also know that archaeological data is needed revaluation about its musical identity. Korea, being a peninsula and being surrounded by the great powers of the Orient, has been subject to invasions throughout its history by warring nations from China and Manchuria to the north and from Japan to the east. So, In order to understand the Prehistoric state of Korea, we make researches into the archaeomusicology of Sandong and Jilin provinces of China.