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Nathaniel Hawthorne's metaphorical attitude toward forests involves his geographical setting and characterization in his selected tales and romances. In his earlier tales, forests often metaphorize an evil concept that originates from American Puritanism whereas goodness is associated with unthwarted nature depicted predominantly in “Ethan Brand,” “The Birthmark” and “Rappaccini‘s Daughter”, which were written in the middle of his literary career. Such a binary view of forest culminates in the characterization of The Scarlet Latter no less than in its geographical setting, enriching its thematical complexity, and continues down to The Blithedale Romance and the Marble Faun. Significantly enough, however, Hawthorne's well-balanced allegorization of his characters in The Scarlet Letter, in which the view of forest alternates between good and evil, loses its tension in the two later romances. Especially coming to his last romance The Marble Faun, Hawthorne's cultural neurosis embedded in Puritanism not only affects its monocultural plot, it also defiles nature's name as much. Although Hawthorne's individual work might invite a pro-environmental reading, in conclusion, he never freed himself from his own cultural anxiety which I would assert impacted the formation of his view of nature. This point would be especially obvious only if one made a brief comparision of Hawthorne's view of nature with that of Henry Thoreau, one of his own contemporary writers. Before resensitizing ourselves with a ground-oriented culture, we need to resist our own language that has been, throughout human history, toxicated by anthropocentric thus anti-ecological metaphysics and/or industrialism-addled mindsets. In other words, retrieving our lost sensitivity to wildness in Snyderian terminology presupposes dedoxifying the homocentric language. Such a task prompts us to detect Hawthorne's monocultural attitude toward forests, which is metaphorized in his geographic locations or allegorized in his characterization. And problematizing his defiled language hopefully entails a reexamination of the later American writers who are presumed to be influenced by Hawthorne's own culture-bound image of forest.

While Eulogy on King Philip's surfaces treats history, its undercurrents address race. The race problems of Apess's text are political, and to wage in the politics in his day means to struggle with racialist ideologies. The years when Apess published his writing, Eulogy on King Philip, are precisely key years for American expansion. American expansion requires Indian's forced resettlement to lands west of the Mississippi, and it was bolstered by emergent doctrines of racial destiny--virulent discourse that the historical fate of American Indian has been shaped by “Vanishing American” ideology. That is the complex, pervasive 19th entury popular and scientific belief that indigenous Americans were “dying race.” Apess's Eulogy on King Philip implicitly concerns this formalized discourse and attacks it. Strategically choosing the late colonial era as his focus and repeatedly comparing with his own, Apess obliterates the illusion that time has brought progress for Indians. He indicates that Indian-White relations had changed little over time and that it would be naive to assume the direct correlation between Enlightenment rhetoric and enlightened practice. American Indians remained chained under desperate laws and have been left to drag out a miserable life as slaves for nearly two hundred years. Apess equates the treatment of Indians with the degradations of institutionalized slavery. Throughout, The Eulogy on King Philip insists that there is more than a metaphoric link between these two forms of oppression. Apess marks the kinds of connection between enslavement of African-American and dispossession of American Indian. His attack for racist policies toward American Indian is to attack slavery. His text points out analogous, religious, juridical, and economic practices that underlay the dispossession and genocide of American Indians and the enslavement of African- Americans. Subordination of both groups was buttressed by complex moral arguments, by legal sleigh of hand, by scientific discourse. Apess must have perceived in the Abolition movement a powerful ally for Indian reform. He was well aware that the discourses of Indian disappearance and extinction are ideologically invented cultural products.

There have been constant arguments about the character of Milton's Satan. But most of the criticisms implied the duality of Satan. It was because we feel the contradicting feeling towards Satan. The purpose of this paper is to cast a new light upon the character of Satan through anxiety and defense mechanisms, the technical terms of Freud. According to Freud, the conflicts which exist between the id, ego, and superego undoubtedly result in some degree of anxiety or stress. To deal with anxiety, the ego employs what are known as defense mechanisms. We often usually use these mechanisms subconsciously in our lives. Satan felt anxious after falling into the hell. He revealed a threat to mental health and stability. He got furious with his circumstance, so he became verbally and physically abusive. All these proved he was upset. Forgetting, denial, displacement, rationalization, regression and repression are used for defense mechanism to protect the self from consciously dealing with painful circumstances and events. So Satan denied his reality, abused his opponent, god, and fabricated a information as opposed to facing reality of a situation. And his behavior was sometimes childish, immature and inappropriate. As a result, he turned out to be malicious, foolish, doubtful, miserable and lustful. In these ways human beings are similar to a fallen angel, Satan. It is why we cannot just laugh at Satan's folly. Therefore “the satan in Milton enables him to draw the character well just as the satan in us enables us to receive it.”

In Jane Austen's day, there were two trends concerning the status and rights of women. One is that many woman writers have been entering into the literary world as novelists continuously since 17th century. The other is women's criticism of the patriarchy, which called for equal status with men, with the same rights. Austen's novel Northanger Abbey reflects the voice of women who were part of these two trends. The first is reflected in the conflict between the sexes arising from women undertaking the intellectual act of writing. Austen, through the relations between Catherine Morland, the innocent heroine, and Henry Tilney, the intellectual hero, suggests indirectly the intellectual status that woman must attain. This is shown in the following two kinds of narrative form between Henry and Catherine. One is Henry's parodic narrative style that he employs when he talks to Catherine, on which he prides himself, along with on his own broad knowledge, and which he uses to tease her. Such an attitude indicates, as was standard in Austen's day, man's intellectual control over woman, and, at the same time, woman's struggle to gain intellectual equality. The other is Catherine's passive and submissive narrative style, which reflects her surrender to Henry's intellectual assertions without any objection. Such an attitude expresses man's dominance in the intellectual sphere, and, at the same time, gives a paradoxical warning that woman must establish herself on an intellectual level, especially as novelists, with independent ideas. The second is reflected critically on the patriarchal society of Jane Austen's day. The personal relations between Catherine and John Thorpe or General Tilney(Henry's father) suggest the social rights women should be given, which is without subordination to man personally and without dependence on him financially. John turns out to be himself patriarchal, with a ‘one-sided way,’ by lying to Catherine, without considering her position and situation, in order to shamelessly make her his wife so as to gain wealth, thinking she is going to be an heiress to Mr. Allen. General Tilney, a typical patriarchal man, tries to impress Catherine with his kindness, and finally takes her to his rebuilt Northanger Abbey, a great mansion, in order to acquire her as his daughter-in-law, also assuming her to be the heir to Mr Allen's property. But on hearing that she is not a heiress, information that transpired when Catherine rejected John, General Tilney suddenly banishes her from the Abbey without a slightest concern. It is clear that John and General Tilney hold woman in low esteem, merely as sources of money, and so they don't hesitate to trample on the human rights of woman. Austen uses this recurring theme from Northanger Abbey as a vehicle for criticizing man's intellectual and social domination over woman, and for advocating woman's intellectual and social equality with man.

The purpose of this article is to analyse the design of romance and the anti-feministic narrative strategy revealed in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Washington Irving reveals his conservative and anti-feministic view by satire on a romantic love through the design of Gothic romance in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” First, he selects the drowsy, dreamy, and tranquil Sleepy Hollow to make Gothic mood, and then uses the ghost of a Hessian trooper, the legend of the Headless Horseman of Sleepy Hollow, to make a fantastic stage. He also enters two main characters who seem to be knights in the middle ages on the stage. One is Ichabod Crane who is a schoolmaster came to instruct the children of Sleepy Hollow. He is tall, but exceedingly lank with narrow shoulders, long arms and legs. Irving makes him a comic and anti-hero person in appearance and character. The other is Brom Van Brunt who is the hero of the country round, which rang with his feats of strength and hardihood. He is broad-shouldered and double-jointed with short curly black hair, but a rantipole hero. These two people fight each other for Katrina Van Tassel who is a blooming lass of fresh eighteen and a little coquette, famed for both her beauty and her vast expectations. In the fight for love, Ichabod is rejected by Katrina and expelled by Brom who disguised himself in the Headless Horseman. Irving, outwardly, makes only allegorically an attacks on Gothicism in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” through the design of Gothic romance and the comic characters. But, inwardly, he reveals his anti-feministic view through a double narrative strategy using the narrator, the third character in the story. The narrator reveals his conservative and anti-feministic view using the male discourse. He has gender anxiety and reinforces his male discourse to oppress female discourse. Irving projects his anti-feministic view indirectly through the design of Gothic romance and the narrator, his spokesman.

From the early phase of his literary career, Henry Lawson has been called “the voice of Australia.” One of the reasons of his being the representative writer of Australia is that he depicted realistically the typical Australian surroundings…bush and people suffering in that land. The bush was considered as the heart of Australia, and Lawson as the representative writer of Australia has been problematic since some critics praised his glorification of the bush while others censured his negative portrait of it. Both parties, however, tend to regard him not so much a literary man as a public relations man. Lawson has tried to represent not the voice of bush itself but rather that of the people who has suffered in it. Lawson's bush is not merely a geographical place but a psychological one. He revolted against the contemporary literary trend which romanticized the bush and bush people's hard living. The voice Lawson renders through his realistic depiction of the Australian bush is neither pleasant nor beautiful; in general its tone is minor of the tired and distressful people. It is partly because of his personal background and inclination, but mostly because of his mission as a writer to comfort the suffered by rendering their voice as it is.

One way to look at the complexities of black drama is to concentrate on the relationship between black drama and its audience. The first drama written by a black was able to be staged only with the efforts of whites with philanthropic intentions. The black theatre provided a special confrontation, for socioeconomic reasons, predominantly white, with a world created by a black playwright out of his own experience. The living presence of black actors created a significant difference between the experience of writing a play about blacks and that of reading about them from the printed page. It is certain that it was a tremendously complicated matter for a man to expose his ideas and feeling from a stage to an audience that frequently wanted either to ignore or to exploit those ideas. However, without the support of whites it was not possible for a black play to get staged at all. Further, even as plays by blacks moved onto the stage as their playwrights confronted the dilemma of adapting to a white audience, the playwrights worked with limited experience and knowledge of the theatre, as well as with concerns about the effectiveness of their dramaturgy. The white audience forced them to portray black people as the whites wanted to see them, rather than as the playwright knew them, regardless of whatever benign intentions might have motivated the whites. Even if there were black audiences, they were unaccustomed to the theatre and unused to the idea of thinking about it for themselves in terms of themselves. The problem of audience is not limited to a white audience. Throughout American history, the black majority has favored cultural assimilation and yet many blacks have supported separatist ideology. On the one hand, black playwrights are expected to resist moving into a polluted mainstream, to remain separate in their blackness and thereby to create a satisfactory sense of self, not just one imposed upon them by a dominant white society. On the other hand they are encouraged to support the assimilationist ideology and help their own race to move into mainstream society. Black playwrights have to struggle not only with their own race but also with the white audience. The moment any black playwright starts writing, this problem of audience is confronted, consciously or unconsciously. To whom shall playwrights address themselves, to black people with radical separationist ideology or to those who want to be assimilated into mainstream American culture? Answering this becomes a serious concern for black playwrights. Even today black playwrights are more or less in the same position they were in a hundred years ago. Black playwrights have been forced to make compromises with white middle-class society that have cost them their racial authenticity. The lack of a cultured black middle-class audience to support ‘black drama’ is still a major obstacle impeding its development. A black aesthetic will be viable among playwrights only when artists and audience alike feel the need for a genuine black drama.

This study aims to explain how Emily Brontë's narrative is interwoven by various narrative techniques. In this dissertation I have examined Emily Brontë's novel: Wuthering Heights. Emily makes use of established genre the gothic. Emily Brontë begins the long tale of Nelly Dean in Wuthering Heights and the setting appears to be perfect for unfolding of this gothic tale of horror. In this fiction the conflict is finally resolved by a marriage that is desirable. We see that the original conflict started with undesirable union. There seems to be some dichotomy in the vision of the author herself. Emily′s Wuthering Heights deems to be very neatly designed, though it has multiple narrators and interwoven plots. Beneath the surface, however, there are ruptures in the layers of narratives that we can detect at a second reading. These ruptures are caused by the narrators who choose to tell the story in their own special ways, and they ultimately reveal a fragmentation in author′s vision which splits the novel itself.

Since the first of his novel, The Poorhouse Fair (1959), John Hoyer Updike has made many other publications. Among these publications has been the Rabbit Series that had been created over a cycle of 10 years and they are all recognized as the criticism of the late 20th century American society. One reason the series were so recognized by many literary scholars was because it had described the agony and conflict within the American home and the life of the middle class people. From the end of the 1950's to that of the 1980's, the character of Harry “Rabbit” Angstrom, has been an example of these conflicting and agonizing lifestyles of the late American Society. It has also shown the political, social and cultural changes of the late 20th century. Harry Angstrom, the hero of the Rabbit Series, represents the reality of human being struggling for existence and survival in the American society. It may be somewhat dangerous to understand the world of Updike's wide and various works with the limited theme of alienation. However, it should be noted that the aspect of alienation from the trend of existential philosophy has been a great influence on the human life and by the complexity and diversified mass of society since the Second World War. This study will describe aspects of existence that Harry, the hero of the Rabbit Series, feels through his behavior and consciousness in the modern American society. This study will examine the self-centered existence, experienced by Harry, in Rabbit, Run. In Rabbit, Run, Harry is in the existential dilemma. That is, he is intellectually and statically alienated from society and from home. This may be a result of the self-centered existence. The consciousness of his existence seems to be more severe due to the anxiety and fears from his fall from class position. As he becomes more excessive with the existential self-consciousness, Harry's feeling of existence becomes deeper and more severe. Updike portrays the types of changing middle-class family, the fall of the home and the corruption of the American society in the late 20th century. In the Rabbit Series, the author describes man's fears, anxieties, emptiness, frustrations, corruptions and destructions. Man's desire and loneliness in all human relations are related to Harry Angstrom and shows how the existence acts in the frustrations of life and death and assertiveness of the family and home.

This paper is a detailed analysis of current English as a Second Language evaluation tools. It seeks to explore their developmental purposes and areas, including their evaluation methods, levels and criteria and apply standards to the development of domestic practical English evaluation tools. Thus, in this paper, I first concentrate on the analysis of current development of English evaluation tools, especially the ones that have recently been emphasized in Korea: the communication-centered evaluation tools, in particular, the methods used to evaluate speaking ability in English. Based on this analysis, I compare and examine the aforementioned tools with special emphasis on their characteristic features. The results of this analysis show that Great Britain and the United states have developed and utilized many language evaluation tools customized for various purposes. In addition, most of the speaking evaluation tools have tested the four skills of a language: listening, reading, writing, and speaking, in a comprehensive manner. The testing methods are face to face interview and one to one cassette tape recording. Testing lasts approximately ten to twenty minute. Test scores vary with the specific characteristics of each evaluation tool. In conclusion, it is likely that recent efforts in developing effective language evaluation tools will provide the momentum needed to push the domestic English evaluation field in the right direction.

The CA between a light verb v and a direct object takes place under external Merge. A wh-argument consists of two kinds of activators: A[uQ] and A[uCase]. “Clustering” is an operation by which an initial wh-phrase with [WH, uQ]-features gathers the other wh-phrase(s) with homogeneous features at a phase vP, forming a group of [WHn, uQn]-features. “Clustering” may be optionally added to “Move” : Move = (Clustering) + Agree + Pied-piping + Merge. In a multiple wh-EQ, the inner Ceq has always [Q, uWH(-OCC)]-features due to COMP-freezing, while the outer Cu has [Q, uWH (±OCC)]-features. The Clustering of Bulgarian-type languages is stronger than that of English-type languages. In Korean multiple wh-questions, the clustered feature-group moves to the Spec-T for OA, the rest of the clustered feature-group agrees simultaneously and covertly with a probe C without Move.

This study aims to demonstrate that the English learning through Web-based learning can improve students' English Comprehension skill. To implement this study, I focused on listening and reading, designed the Web-based experiment instrument and applied it to the class. To see the students' attitudes, interests, and recognition on it, the pre-survey was carried out before the main study. The post-survey was done to investigate what the changes were compared with the pre-survey in their attitudes, interests, academic motivation on the Web-based learning. And three types of tests, - pre-test, mid-test, and post-test - were done to research the variation in academic achievement between the experimental group and the control group. According to the results of the surveys, the experimental group showed that they had much more interests, motivations, and confidence in English learning compared with the pre-survey results. And the result of the academic achievement also showed the experimental group in mid-test got the higher achievement score, and also much more higher in post-test than in the pre-test. From this study, it was proved that the English learning through Web-based Learning was more positive and effective compared with the traditional class.

This article offers an analysis of the -er nominals as in ‘teacher’, ‘writer’ and ‘speaker,’ making use of the theory by Levin & Rappaport(1988, 1992). Nominals in -er have been regarded as a kind of deverbal nominals. They are an external argument of the verbs from which they are derived. The first goal of this paper is to discuss the event position and the external argument position and to show that the event position is similar to the external position. Both -er nominals and derived nominals received an event position when they appear with complement structure. When the -er nominal don't have a complement structure, as in ‘a wiper’, it can refer to either a machine or a person. However, when the -er nominal takes a complement structure, as in ‘a wiper of car’, its reference is confined to a person. The second goal is to discuss the affixs which have different properties and to discuss the thematic grid of affixes, especially -er affixes. The thematic grid of the affixes starts on the new categorial node that the affix creates and percolates to the X' node. PPs that are sisters to the thematic -er affixes can play thematic roles. Unlike other agentive nominalizations, -er nominals licenses a PP and entails [AG, TH] but not other thematic roles. For example, ‘try’ (*trier) allows a simple transitive subcategorization structure. But the thematic grid contains [AG, PROPOSITION], which does not match the [AG, TH] on -er. This thematic grids are percolated to the higher X' node. I try to apply this percolation theory to Korean affixes.

The purpose of this study was to develop evaluation criteria for Web-Based English Instruction(WBEI) Programs. To achieve this purpose I first analysed the elements of WBEI and the models for the Design of WBEI. From the analysis I chose key elements from which I derived criteria for different areas of the developing conceptual model. The areas were divided into four categories: learning aims, content design, learning/teaching strategies, and technological support available for learning language. These areas were subdivided into 28 items for the evaluation criteria such as the clearness of learning aims, the appropriateness of feedback, and loading speed. These items, then, were examined in terms of objectivity by the meta-evaluation group, and five items were left out as inappropriate. Thus, 24 items were finally considered as evaluation criteria. In the mean time the result of the application of the criteria items on the 5 Web sites for English education revealed that this evaluation criteria system worked fairly well. However, there exist considerable validity and objectivity concerns. I dare not say that the criteria developed in this study is completed. Instead, I admit that it is one of many experimental criteria. Therefore, for the developing better criteria it is necessary that we continually receive feedback from the schools about the effectiveness of WBEI programs and that we derive our criteria from this experience.