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The purpose of this article is to analyze how Greene reveals the tragic world and the pursuit of hope in The Heart of the Matter. Greene recasts Greek tragedy to suit a Christian framework in the novel. He selects his own tragic spacial setting and heroes in order to show the tragic world. In the novel, the spacial setting plays an important role to reveal the tragic conditions of people and their sufferings. Sierra Leone, the spacial background of the novel, is also a tragic place, and residents are suffering from all kinds of evils and corruptions there. Greene uses poor and hard natural environment as a tragic background, and also creates minor characters suffering in the tragic world. They are lost and deserted people in the tragic surroundings. They all live a meaningless life without any hope. Including Louise, Wilson, Harris, Helen, Priest Rank, and Priest Clay, the minor characters play the same role as chorus and ghosts in Greek tragedy. Yusef is another kind of person who is different from the minor characters. He is a typical symbol of evil and corruption. As an antagonist, he induces Scobie, a protagonist, to corruption and destroys him. In contrast to the minor characters, Scobie, a good-natured and religious person, tries to help other people sufferings from the tragic surroundings. Greene reveals Scobie’s tragic life within his attempt to take the impossible responsibility for suffering people in Sierra Leone. Because of his excessive pity, he forsakes his honesty and sincerity as a policeman for the sake of unhappy and suffered people. He gives up his own peace and safety in the complications of selecting between law and his individual emotions, Louise and Helen, his own soul and others’ happiness. Though his downfall dates from his excessive pity, its motivation is emphasized rather than its result because it is the expression of love. In this novel, the contrast of good and evil, the ceaseless temptation of evil, a severe sense of guilt and strong sufferings are basic to this Christian tragedy. Unlike the heroes of Greek tragedy, Greene’s heroes are antiheroes. But Greene reflects the tragic vision about human beings’ existence with Christian imagination and form. Greene focuses on the method of living within a spot of tragic life in which evil is done. During his endeavor to reduce other people's sufferings, Scobie imitates Christ's sacrificial death. Like Christ, he hopes to solve other people's sufferings. Although his endeavor to create the new world without evil and suffering goes wrong, Scobie's sacrifice causes a great tragic effect in other people's minds. Greene shows a hopeful vision to the tragic world through Scobie's Christlike death.

Considering William Carlos Wlilliams' family background, he is greatly influenced by three women. These women are Williams' paternal grandmother Emily Wellcome, his mother Elena Hoheb, and his wife Florence Herman. Among these three women, Emily Wellcome is deeply inscribed as the first muse in Williams. He identifies Emily with his poetic unconsciousness and Emily's influences go on through his entire life. She appears as subject matter in many of the works of Williams' In “The Wanderer” which is the genesis of Paterson, Emily and Williams are represented as Demeter and Kore respectively based on the Demeter/Kore myth. Emily, appearing as an old muse in this poem, possesses Demeter's power which unites all opposite elements such as life and death, good and evil, virgin and whore etc. In “The Wanderer”, Williams is the novitiate, a Kore figure wandering the deserted streets of a hellish modern world. But in the guidance of Emily, the poet experiences his death and rebirth in the ritual of immersion. In addition, the theme and structure of “The Wanderer” is very similar to the ‘The Great Round’ defined by Erich Neumann. I insist that Emily's appearing in Williams' many works plays an important role as a muse who gives a new vision to the poet. In short, Williams has a circular and monistic world view escaping the linear and dualistic world view. Accordingly, Emily inscribed as old muse gives the new direction of poetics to Williams.

Imperialism is one of the most frequent and productive themes for the traditional English novel. Therefore we can say that, as Said indicates, “without empire there is no European novel as we know it”. The novel is inaugurated in England by Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, a work whose protagonist is the founder of a new world which he rules and reclaims for England. This is much more apparent in middle-nineteenth-century, openly colonial fiction: in Jane Eyre, for example, imperialism is praised for the world and mankind. But, in late-nineteenth- century and after, we can find some writers both criticizing and reproducing the imperial ideology of his time. Heart of Darkness, A Passage to India, and Heart of the Matter are cases in point. Every literary work is influenced by social conditions. British power was durable and continually reinforced. In the related and adjacent cultural sphere, that power was elaborated and articulated in the novel, whose central continuous presence is not comparably to be found elsewhere. That's why we must read it from a different point of view and with a cautious eye.

The American West was the society in which women were in bondage to their male counterparts. Women were obliged to conform to the social codes which set certain standards of what women should be. Their roles were confined within the carefully defined sphere of women's place. Women had to remain domestic and demure, and they required masculine guidance and protection. Literary traditions about women in the West and on the Plains, view women as vehicles for enlarging the male hero's sense of the challenge and terror of the land. Most women characters are conceived as conventionalized, standardized, or melodramatic types shaped by the concepts of heroines in historical and sentimental romances. The stereotypes of these women are not derived from the reality of women's lives but from the nineteenth century conventions of what women should be. However, with the emergence of the intellectual currents and social changes reflected in realism, naturalism, and feminism, there is evidence of a new image of female heroines who represent “new women.” Western American writers such as Willa Cather, Hamlin Galand, Marie Sandoz now begin to portray women as central figures of their plots. They, growing up in the Midwest during the passing of the frontier era, belong to the West and witness its change and development. They all use biographical elements in presenting the changing images of women in the West. Garland's works specially represent the man's viewpoint toward the new woman and his sympathy with women who try to liberate themselves from social constraint. Heroines in Main-Travelled Roads represent new women who have a choice to do what they want to do, and they are in control of their own destiny.

The Levinasian way of presenting the ethical difference between the self and the Other (a human as the absolutely other) is essentially linked with the quest for the knowledge of the unknowable, God, but in a radically different way from onto-theological methodologies traditionally accepted in the West. Heidegger claims that philosophy has run its course, and that the task remaining for the thinker at the end of philosophy is to think what really presents the presence of the present of beings. Yet Heidegger faces a dilemma as he speculates on what makes possible the presence in terms of the truth　and unconcealment of the truth, which still are words of logocentrism. Derrida claims that the other is an alterity that exceeds the ontological account of the alternative of presence and absence. But Derridian deconstruction fails to acclaim the particular otherness of a human as the Other. Levinas, in claiming that there is the ethical dimension between the self and the Other, definitely goes against the grain of entire tradition of Western philosophy, which he defines ontological. In this Levinasian light, the task of a literary criticism is to catch the overflowing of finite thought of a given literary work directed toward the infinite, and this work would be to trace the alterity of the text by questioning the totalizing theme of the text.

The aim of this essay is to investigate multi-dimensional meaning of some poems in William Blake's Songs of Innocence & of Experience. The primary background of this kind of investigation is what is called ‘Doctrine of the States,’ which becomes more concrete in Blake's later epics. States are stages of error, which the Divine Mercy creates so that the State, not the Individual in it, shall be blamed, and the Individual can be forgiven. Each speaker of each song is not alway Blake the poet. Blake is a kind of stage director who manages the speaker behind the scene. He does not directly represent the states of Innocence or of Experience, but tries to show “the Contrary States of Human Souls.” To understand this deliberate strategy of the prophet-poet and the various ironical and symbolic meanings behind it, the reader should cultivate his own imagination and intuition. Only then he can escape from the Newtonian vision which Blake does his best to avoid.

The purpose of this study is to examine the women in Keats's narrative poems, The Eve of St. Agnes, Lamia and Isabella; or, The Pot of Basil. Madeline in St. Agnes is a beautiful woman who wanted to meet her unknown lover in her dream on St. Agnes Eve. After having lurked in the closet and observed her undressing, he approached to her with his stratagem of love when she fell asleep. Madeline was so ignorant that she could not but think that her wish came true and she accepted his erotic passion as true love. But she was merely an object of Porphyro's egoistic erotic love. After their sexual union they escaped into storm which symbolized their reality. In Lamia, Lamia was a brilliant colored snake transformed to a beautiful woman with help of Hermes whom she told where his beloved nymph was. When Lycius met Lamia he fell in love with her as she intended to make him do so. Apollonius, who was a very old intellectual philosopher, came to their wedding uninvited and recognized Lamia's secret. With a word, “Snake”, from his mouth, Lamia was dead and evaporated. Lycius died too, on that evening. The passionate union of Lamia and Lycius was destroyed before Apollonius who was representative of reason. Isabella in Isabella loved Lorenzo who was a servant for her wealthy brothers' trade. Her two brothers lured Lorenzo into the forest and had him killed and buried there. As his death he appeared Isabella's fantasy, she could recover his head and mouldered it in the pot and planted Basil in it. She always watered the pot with her tears. When her brothers took the pot away she wandered to look for it and died mourning the pot. Isabella's life was so entirely depended on the existence of Lorenzo that it was marginalized after his death. As Helene Cixous has defined femininity as lack, negativity, absence of meaning, irrationality, chaos, darkness--in short non-being, we can see the typical examples of women who belong to that category. These three women victimized for their love, and in Madeline's case, for the erotic love. In the 19th century, love was everything for women while it was separated from men's life as Byron demonstrated in Don Juan.

The Greek tragedy, especially the concept of Fate in the Greek sense, had a tremendous influence on Eugene O'Neill. For him, Greek tragedy meant the unsurpassed example of art. To recreate the Greek spirit in modern life was the goal he set for himself both as a playwright and as a man. The mystical, Dionysian experience of being, which O'Neill found in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles, he hoped to impart, through his plays, to a modern audience. What has influenced his plays the most was his knowledge of the drama of all time―particularly Greek tragedy. Mourning Becomes Electra is a modern psychological drama using one of the old legend plots of Greek tragedy, Oresteia for its basic theme. Greek tragic heroes are constantly impelled or guided by Fate. They are not free. Neither are the characters of Mourning Becomes Electra. They obey an internal Fate which is ineluctable. O'Neill meant it so. Doris M. Alexander has called “psychological fate.” He has thus purposely transposed the Greek notion of Fate and substituted for it the modern notions of heredity and psychological determinism. His characters are thus caught in a web of inherited complexes and neuroses from which they cannot escape, and he has suggested the fated recurrence of their attitudes. They are endowed with a keen sense of sin and the whole trilogy is underlain by a deep conviction of the sinful and corrupt nature of man. The conflict between man and Fate is no longer the mere clash of opposite wills on the plane of action. It takes the form of an inner struggle between good and evil forces. The fall of the tragic hero is no longer caused by a mere flaw in his character, but by the irrepressible surge of evil instincts which eventually destroy him. In Mourning Becomes Electra all the characters, except the non-tragic ones who are not passionate enough to kill themselves or the others, are sooner or later crushed to death by an implacable Fate which does not tolerate their dreams of earthly happiness―a spectacle which very forcibly conveys the powerlessness and weakness of Man. Yet, we do not feel depressed by this tragic series of calamities, for the heroes are truly heroic. They fight valiantly. They never debase themselves or behave cowardly―even when they commit suicide. When Christine kills herself, it does not mean that she gives up the fight, but rather that she refuses to yield to Fate. It is her way of saying no to Fate. And the same is true of Orin. He deliberately chooses death when he could live happily. As for Lavinia she remains unbending to the end. Fate does not succeed in crushing her. Though defeated, she preserves all her human dignity. Mourning does indeed become Electra. Mourning Becomes Electra is a modern psychological approximation of the Greek sense of Fate. O'Neill shows that the characters of this tragedy can find the meaning of life, and achieve self-recognition through the antagonism and death with Fate. He, ultimately, shows the human aspects of the unbent, glorious, self-destructive struggles, and the paradoxical meaning of tragedy by the internal, spiritual triumph behind the external bodily failure. His tragic view expressed in his tragedies is that life is derived from death, hope from despair, joy from sadness, sanity from madness, triumph from failure, and brightness from darkness.

This paper aims to examine how William Wordsworth, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Charles Dickens present cities in their works. It argues that the writers criticized their city-based contemporary civilization and searched for community values to sustain human unity in an industrial society. The three writers, this paper suggests, evaluated the city-based civilization with their shaping vision and thereby guide us into a direction that the restoration of human unity depends on how an ideal community is planted in a city. William Wordsworth sees London as a capitalistic city which commodifies human dwellers. What Wordsworth discovers in London is the world of a phantasm which alienates its dwellers. It not only signals the emergence of a new civilization. It also indicates the impoverishment of rural communities and the loss of self-identity. Wordsworth pays much attention to the country life for an alternative community, but his preference for that community results from his desire for internalizing socio-political conflicts in the city. In The Blithedale Romance, Hawthorne makes an experiment on a new mode of life, which supposedly substitutes for the industrialism-oriented city life. The experiment fails, however, for the characters' ego-centric desires conflict with one another and the realistic or outer conditions of life interfere with the actual life of the community. The failure of the experimental life is interconnected with Hawthorne's essential skepticism permeating his world view, rather than he could not foresee industrial depredation. Anyway, Hawthorne does not intend to continue his experiment in his contemporary city life although his experimental spirit is influential enough to form the view of nature of later thinkers and writers. Dickens created the Victorian London that we know today. Through his imaginative work, we clearly understand how deeply the newly-emerging industrial society affected people and changed human life in general. The city-dwellers of all social classes were living their lives as if, both literally and figuratively, “living in death.” Dickens seeks for a fundamental solution to the problems within the city and suggests that we should restore the warmth of home and familial relationships to society as well as to individuals.

The purpose of this study is to seek some explanations how and why the ironical expressions are used to convey non-literal meanings and achieve their pragmatic functions such as condemnation, sarcasm, reproach, humor, etc. better than the ordinary, literal counterparts. We distinguish the situations which cause verbal irony (i.e., situations which make statements ironic) from ironic situations or situational irony (i.e., situations which are ironic) and we assume that verbal irony would be a device to communicate irony as a cognitive phenomenon. Colston, et al. (1997, 2000a, 2000b, 2002) suggested the concept of contrast and contrast effects are fundamental to account for the figurative language comprehension. In processing the verbal irony, we found the positive literal meaning of the remarks in verbal irony serve very important functions: referring weakly manifested negative assumptions, making a contrast with those assumptions, and achieving different degrees of ironicalness via contrast effects. We also found some very convincing explanations why a speaker chooses verbal irony to express his/her dissociative attitudes. Verbal irony makes use of contrast effects which make the ironic remarks more funny, more condemning, and more self-protective than their literal counterparts. We conclude verbal irony is a very efficient device which man has long developed to express and control his/her negative emotion and frustration wisely.

Motivation is the most overlooked aspect of instructional strategy, and perhaps the most critical element needed for language learners. A factor that plays a significant role in reading is motivation. A potentially motivating and interesting text can give readers motivation to continue their efforts to overcome a lack of content schema for a particular text. Authentic materials enliven the classroom and are a powerful motivating factor through enjoyment. We can generally predict readers will have a higher motivation to read about current social issues that have a strong potential effect on them. In this particular case, the selected text deals with an issue that has been the source of so much attention and interest in Korean and foreign newspapers - ‘2002 FIFA World Cup Korea Japan.’At the end of the semester, a brief five-point Likert scale questionnaire was conducted among the 30 students enrolled in the class of ‘Understanding International Society.’ The five questions asked to the students represented Keller's ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) Model. Over 90% answered positively to the questions. Motivation promotes the retention of foreign language skills after study ends, largely because motivated students will tend to use the language during the subsequent period. As learners may be weary of such traditional methodology, teachers should try and relate the learner's prior knowledge in new textual situations to help learners make useful generalizations about language. Learners are then assessing what they have already learned and seeing how items can be used in authentic material, getting to be motivated to learn and use them in the real world at last.

Transitivity of the English reflexive has been analyzed so far mainly in terms of detransitivization. The English reflexive, however, appears to have a function of transitivization as well as detransitivization. It functions as detransitivization in that the number of participants in the event reduces by one; but it can also function as detransitivization in that it still has a transitive structure and expresses greater dynamicity and punctuality than its intransitive counterpart. The transitivization function of the reflexive is frequently observed in highlighting the self-move, resultative, and adversative effect. In addition, a reflexive can also be used to reinforce the transitivity of an already transitive clause.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the linguistic features that each of the four text types shows in the organization of text, within the framework of discourse/text grammar in view of a functional perspective that discourse type is determined by a communicative function or rhetoric purposes. Following Virtanen(1992) and Trosborg(1997), I distinguish discourse type from text type and consider that discourse type at the macrolevel is decided by the text producer's choice of a discourse function, thus affecting the whole strategy of the text, while text type at the microlevel is constituted by part of the process of text-strategic planning, which is determined by the text producer's text strategy. This distinction illustrates an apparent mismatch of a discourse type and the corresponding text type. In this paper, I showed that a text type can be differentiated by a text typical thematic sentence, the text structure and the way of expanding a text.

The immersion programs were developed to provide for English speaking Canadian children with an effective means of attaining proficiency in French, which is Canada's other official language. Since the first Canadian language immersion programs were implemented, it has been shown that language is best learned by all students when it is the medium of instruction rather than the exclusive goal of instruction (Lambert & Tucker, 1972; Genesee, 1987; Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1989).The theoretical rationale for immersion programs derives from research findings concerning both first and second language acquisition. Campbell (1984) considers Krashen's hypotheses as the SLA (Second Language Acquisition) theory involved in language immersion programs. He claims that of all current theoretical positions held by SLA researchers, those formulated by Krashen (1981, 1984, 1985) seem most clearly relevant to immersion. Relying almost exclusively upon Krashen‘s Monitor Theory (Krashen, 1981), Campbell argues for relevancy between language immersion theory and Krashen’s five main hypotheses of SLA. Swain (1985) points out that students in immersion programs develop limited proficiency in productive skills such as speaking and writing during several years of comprehensive input in a second language. The study will review Krashen's hypotheses and Swain (1985) as the underpinning theoretical rationales of immersion.