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The purpose of this study is to analyze concepts and ideas on litterae represented in the Etymologies of Isidore of Seville. Explications on various aspects of litterae, including etymologies, inventors, functions, Latin and Greek alphabets, etc., appear in the First Book of Etymologies, entitled as “De Grammmatica (On Grammar).” Isidore of Seville inherited his compilations on litterae from Latin grammarians’ commentaries on Donatus in the Late Empire and in the early Middle Ages, and from the Fathers of the Church, in particular, from Saint Augustine. Nevertheless, the organization of Etymologies and the treatment of materials discloses a certain alteration, especially when it comes to the idea of litterae in the early 7th century. Isidore of Seville begins his chapter on grammar with explications on litterae, just following the definition of disciplina and ars, whereas other grammarians generally start their treatises with the chapter on voice. It signifies that Isidore considers litterae to be the foundation of knowledges and studies, and places great weights on them. He also accentuates on the visual aspect of litterae which permits visual communication with the absent without voice. I concur with the argument of M. B. Parkes that Isidore's considerations on litterae testifies the transformation of the status perception of the written words in his time, in that they are perceived as visual vehicles of communication filled with symbolic meanings.

This article’s aim is to illuminate the multicultural nature of Byzantine aristocracy in the light of Arab-Islam originated elites during the 10th-11th centuries. For this purpose, our analyses were carried out not only on the names, family names, titles held by some imperial dignitaries but also on their public careers and activities. Firstly, the evidence of the high ranks of the court hierarchy, sebastos, protonobelissimos, rector, magistros, vestarchos, praepositos, anthypatos, patrikios and protospatharios shows the close relationship of the Arab-Islam immigrated elites with Byzantine emperors. On the other hand, the different type of military and civil functions exercised by the same group of dignitaries illustre their high ability in Byzantine Army and civil administration. Secondly, the evidence of some Arab-Islam originated family names or acculturated names(anthroponimy), for example, Amiropoulos, Sarakenopoulos, Anemas, Chase, Hassan, Abdalas, Bourtzes, Koulaib, Moussarab, Mansur, Nasur and Ubaidalah etc., refelct the immigration movement of Arab noble families into Byzantine imperial territories during the same period when the Byzantine army pushed out against Arab-Islam forces in the eastern Asia Minor, northern Syria and Palestine. On the other hand, the presence of Greek-Byzantine given names held by a number of dignitaries and their relatives, for example, Ioannes, Georgios, Constantinos, Theognost, Mikael etc., proves an integration of the Arab noble families by intermarriage and religious conversion into Byzantine aristocracy during the first half of 11th century. Finally, some key military and civil offices the frontier zones committed to some imperial dignitaries illustrate the intermediary role played by Arab immigrated elites between Byzantine government and indigenous population in the territories for a long time occupied by Arab-Islam forces. For example, the position of strategos (military commander) in the thema of Cibyirreotes or Hellas and the exercise of doux (governors) or basilikos (tax official) at Antioch in northern Syria as well as at southern Italy allow us to understand Byzantine emperors’ multicultural policy, whiche was intented to incorporate the heterogeneous population in Byzantine empire.

In handling the crisis raising by the bellicose and violent knights, the attention of ‘the just war’ and also, ‘the saint war’ has been continually caught by the unarmed, in the 11th and 12th centuries. It was very urgent for the unarmed to resolve the expansion of the feudal seigneurs and knights. To deal with the complicated circumstances, the many theologians and monks have tried to suggest not only the legitimate and just war but the ideal type of knight. It is given to the two excellent representatives, Orderic Vital and Saint Bernard, in proposing the ideal type of knight, what we called, militia Christi, and in presenting the way to be the soldiers of God in the 11th and 12th centuries. As a monk of the Saint Evroul in Normandy, Orderic Vital has furnished the precious informations, about the knights including the kings of England and France, through his Historia ecclesiasticae with religious passion. Also, Saint Bernard, who was abbot in the abbey of Clairvaux and the famous theologian, has provided the new knighthood and the way of doing through his De laude novae militiae with the invitation to the second crusade. In spite of common view, between Orderic Vital and Saint Bernard, concerning in the mission of the solider of God, militia Christi, we can find the difference between them. To the chronicler of Historia ecclesiasticae , Orderic Vital, it is the first priority in inviting the knight to the monastic life to become the ideal type of knight. Contrastively, it is very important for Saint Bernard to participating in the second crusade as the way to realize the ideal type of knight. It is very difficult to define the ideal type of knight in the 11th and 12th centuries. But it is said that the ideal type of knight, proposed by Orderic Vital and Saint Bernard, protects the Church and the christianism against the paganism as well as observes to the ecclesiastical indoctrination.

The ritual excommunication molded in the ninth to tenth centuries widely spread over medieval Europe during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries having been contained in the bishop’s pontifical. Although in the High Middle Ages it was to be a general appearance that excommunication was sentenced in the ecclesiastical courts, the records of ritual excommunication still remained by the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. While ‘Occasional excommunication formulae’ and ‘Pontificale Romano-Germanicum formulae’ began to build forms of ritual excommunication, ‘Auctoritate dei formula’ showed the strong intention to force the ritual excommunication more strongly on the faithful. Accordingly ‘auctoritate dei formula’ set forth the long list of authorities and the various kinds of curse, so that showed an attempt to maximize the horror of malediction. In comparison to it, Mende formula and general formula were composed simplifying the punishments and prohibitions, and almost removing the curses. The reason why the ritual excommunication took places since the tenth century can be explained in the political confusion of northern Europe. The social security was damaged by the Norman invasions, and the political and military center was destructed due to the dismantling of Carolingian dynasty. There was almost no secular power who was able to give supports to church to prevent misbehavior. Under the circumstances like those, church could not help dealing with social criminals by herself, and a way of increasing effectively the power of excommunication was to strengthen the force of excommunication. It was the political and social circumstances that ‘auctoritate dei formula’ which maximized the cursing ingredients of excommunication had been appeared in south-eastern and north-eastern France. The pronouncement form of excommunication took a significant changing process in the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Not only the decretal collections had its apogee in Decretum of Gratian, but also church court was to be systematically organized in the twelfth century. A series of decretal collections and the systematic debates on them from the time of the third Lateran Council(1179) and the fourth Lateran Council(1215) to the collection of Decretal of Gregory IX accelerated such inclination. With the decrease of ritual excommunication, the sentence of excommunication transferred to the ecclesiastical court. Moreover, that the ‘general excommunication formula’ was to be used with a new type of automatic sentence of excommunication as ‘latae sententiae,’ was another reason of those decrease.

In the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Alfonso X the Muslims were primarily military enemies, unlike the Jews. They were portrayed as warriors, though described as cruel and dangerous enemies, and didn't become the target of the satire or extreme aversion. Their religion was portrayed relatively with favor, several poems commending them for being Marian. The same nature between two religions was emphasized. But there was the difference between the Muslims in Cantigas de Santa Maria and Cantar de Mío Cid. In the case of the former the negative aspects such as cruelty, aggressiveness and barbarity were emphasized, in contrast to the noble image of Muslims that appeared in the work of the earlier period, Cantar de Mío Cid. Muslims represented in the miniatures looks ugly, which implies their negative images. The difference seems to be the result of the influence of the religious nature of the Cantigas de Santa María.

This study aims to interpret Boccaccio's last fiction, il Corbaccio, one of the most controversial works of his, as a moral treaty rather than a simple literary fiction. In particular, by placing the work in a proper historical context in which the author lived as a public persona for his city Florence, the present study ultimately tries to delve into Boccaccio's view of women. In that regard, the comparison of the lurid misogyny represented in il Corbaccio with the contemporary concerns for women's vanity shows us that Boccaccio, by stressing men's vendetta against women, represented male-centered world-view throughout the work. The sumptuary laws of Boccaccio's ages and the contemporary fear of women's dominance over men, both of which are the main issues running underneath the work, are representative of this gender-biased view of women, society, and universe etc. In short, il Corbaccio, despite its literary form of fiction that seemingly does not present any social significance, is a moral treaty for enlightening contemporary male readers, because the work puts its emphasis upon the hierarchical order of the world based upon gender-relationship and offers a broad spectrum of ideological standpoints on how the nature and worth of women were understood in the institutional context of the mid-Trecento Florence.

The Royal Entry, also known by various other names, including Triumphal Entry and Joyous Entry, embraced the ceremonial and festivities accompanying a formal entry by a ruler or his representative into a city in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period in Europe. Some historians have pointed out that the royal entry revealed a nascent French nationalism(sentiment national) and a monarchic sentiment(sentiment monarchique). In fact, the entry ceremony called attention to the divinity of the king. In other words, the entry ceremony, like all other royal ceremonials, honored the king and he was the principal actor. On the other hand, the towns and communities that staged, designed, and framed royal entry ceremony have received less attention than the kings. But Royal entry was an interplay between the king and each group. Men expressed their political rules in rituals before they defined them in written theory. Struggles for power or recognition among individuals or parties were acted out in ceremonials which tended to accommodate rather than to accentuate differences. The citizens found the royal entry to be a good place to express their claims. Moreover the royal entry was a device by which the subjects rendered homage to a king who approved their authority and renewed local charters; the citizens promised fidelity in exchange for the king's affirmation of the city's privileges. And they tried to define the duties of the king. In conclusion, the royal entry called attention to the demonstration of reciprocity between the king and city.

Ideological commitment of Leondardo Bruni (c.1370-1444), a representative figure of 15th-century Florentine humanism, has been increasingly subject to heated controversies. This is first of all due to ambivalence which is found in his works. On one hand, he appears a champion of civic republicanism, proclaiming free and equal participation of citizens in politics as preconditions for good government and denouncing other forms of government, first of all monarchy, as basically identical with tyranny. On the other hand, there are reasons to believe that in reality he had equally favorable notions about other forms of government, insofar as they served the security and welfare of their people. This ambivalence has divided commentators on Bruni's political thoughts. Was Bruni a pioneer of modern republican thinking? Or, was he a freelancer-typed writer who was ready to use his rhetorical skill for the interest of his hirers. While criticizing the anachronical assumptions underlying both of interpretations, this article argues that a key to Bruni's idea of ideal government can be found by putting it in the context of later medieval discourses on ideal rule and considering their features, first of all pragmatism and the sensitivity toward the particularities.

Pope Pius Ⅱ(1458∼1464) was a well known humanist, also famous as a poet and orator. In 1462 he began writing Commentaries, a memoire of his life and work as a Pope. The title and structure of the book was derived from the ancient genre of Commentarii, which was the Italian literary trend of the Renaissance era. Scholars usually regard the Commentaries as “the only autobiography ever written by a reigning Pope” and also focus on the book’s political propagandistic character, similar to that of the ancient genre Commentarii. However, to fully understand the Commentaries, an approach in the direction of the author needs to be made. This means that to fully understand the historical context of the Commentaries, one needs to consider Pius Ⅱ’s personal life and the situation of the Fifteenth-century Christendom under the Ottoman invasions. The ‘anxiety’ which sprang from the conflict between Pius Ⅱ’s old universalism ideal and the awareness of the Papal authority failing, was an important factor in why this book was written. This study focuses on the ‘apologia’ character of the Commentaries, which aims to defend Pius Ⅱ’s failures in the crusading policies in the earlier years of his reign. His own description of his youth, conclave of 1458 and early years of his reign in Commentaries are further discussed. Nevertheless, Commentaries does not really concern itself with historical preciseness. Rather, how Pius Ⅱ reconstitutes historical facts to defend himself was one important point of this study. Pius Ⅱ selected certain facts and reorganized them in such a fashion to favorably describe his life and his work. This study argues that Pius Ⅱ wrote his book with readers in mind, and that the Commentaries is a result of his awareness of the public’s eye.

This article deals with the protestant reformers' ideas on women and how they've been applied through european society during Protestant Reformation in sixteenth century. Such reformers as Luther and Calvin thought that the women was created as child-bearers and nature of women had aptitude only for housewives. Protestant reformers believed that women should follow the vocation of mother and wife, as god was designed for them. Reformers' understandings for women were essentially based on patriarchy, and hardly different from their opponents like Roman catholic church. Reformation was considered as the revolutionary attempt to restore spiritual liberty and equality for every christian men and women by means of their religious principles, such as 'justification by the faith only' and 'priesthood of all believers.' Consequently, women's public involvements increased to a certain degree during early reformation era. Nevertheless, reformers like Luther and Calvin still considered women as weaker and inferior creature than men. These conventional understandings for women gradually reinforced when reformational novelties had faded with institutionalization and social discipline in later reformation. The patriarchy firmly settled into Reformation europe, and public arena was reserved exclusively for male members of society. Nevertheless, the vocation for mother and wife was not enough for some women, whose religious convictions led them to express women's spiritual liberty and equality by means of publishing and preaching. Katharina Schütz Zell (1497-1562) from Strasboug, Argula von Grumbach (1492-1563) from Bavaria, and Marie Dentière (1495-1561) from Geneva are regarded as best examples. However, protestant reformers did not accept their religious activities. Reformers like Luther and Calvin considered these female protestant vanguardists as hasty and dangerous. Female protestant reformers, not approved by the mainstream of the Reformation, could not leave their marks on history. No matter how much the Reformation challenged the catholic doctrine of salvation and changed human way of living, protestant reformers once again brought up one of the oldest control measures for society, the patriarchy.

This study aims at examining the role of Lollard women in later middle ages through the work of John Foxe's Acts and Monuments. It is generally accepted that heresy in later medieval period gave more opportunity to women than Catholic church. However, this study suggests a careful revision to that notion through the work of for John Foxe's Acts and Monuments. According to John Foxe's book, the role of women seems to be reduced into the household role. Although there are many records on women in his book, the role of women are not explicitly prominent in general. Even compared to some well known women mystics of Catholic church such as Margery Kempe and Julian of Norwich who played in an independent role as women, no Lollard woman in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries showed a similar role in the community. In this study, it is argued that it is not only because the role of women in Lollard society was limited, but also because John Foxe himself considerately drew a picture of women in the Reformation period in England. It means, during the Reformation period, a desirable image of women was newly established to emphasize their role in the household. The emphasis in family and the household role of women were shrewdly penetrated across the work of Foxe.

Joseph R. Strayer deals with the meaning of the state in his book On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State, which was written in 1970. In the book, he examined the definition of a state from the perspective of European History. His theory of the state is based on the situation in the United States in the 1960s. At that time, the United States was dealing with internal conflicts and divisions between the power of the state and civil society, as well as the ramifications of the Cold War. Strayer described the characteristics of state-building in Europe. Firstly, he recognized the state as having positive attributes because it had developed through rational processes such as the formation of institutions. In recommending England as the best model among many different countries, he showed an Anglophilic propensity. The fact that only a few governing elites founded and developed the state is another characteristic of the medieval state that Strayer focused on, and this is called laicization. Strayer further equated state-building with the formation of institutions. Finally, he advanced ideas which broke with the dominant discourse that divided the Middle and the Modern Ages before and after the 16th century. But his approach had several problems. For Strayer, the state was an entity that should be respected, so his theory of the state ignored the dark side of violences, which the state uses. He also ignored the common people who play an important role in the establishment of a modern state. He understood state-building simply as a top-down process conducted by only a few governing elites. Furthermore, his theory of the state, which emphasized the particularity of Europe, not only ignored regional characteristics of non-European countries, but also, by postulating the 12th century as the starting point of the Modern Ages, he divorced the new Modern Ages from the past. Strayer’s book was written at the time of the Cold War, when the United States adopted Wilsonism as its foreign policy. During this time, one of the main purposes of the United States was to support the Third World, and Strayer actively participated in this policy making in the same way as his teacher, C. H. Haskins. Thus, the book was planned as a project on modernization. Strayer combined historical fact and contemporary ideology and wrote the book with realistic purpose. In the conclusion, Strayer used history as the weapon of political ideology, while, on the other hand, based on a realistic and practical view of history, he demonstrated the efficacy of historical study. At this point, his study contains a plethora of suggestions concerning the mutual relationship between history and ideology.