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In 1967, Lynn White published an article, “The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis,” in the highly influential journal Science. His article was based on the premise that all forms of life modify their context, and suggested that what people do about nature depends on what they think about themselves in relation to their ecologic environment. Moreover, he conjectured that Christian Middle Ages were the historical roots of contemporary ecologic crisis. White's new thesis set off an extended debate about the role of religion in the destructive attitude conducting to the exploitation of the nature. Many saw his argument as a direct attack on Christianity, and some theologians think his analysis of the Bible, expecially Genesis is misguided. It also gained interest in the relationship between man, nature and religious ideas, thus stimulating new fields of study like environmental ethics and eco-theology. In this paper, I review White's academic works, including Medieval Technology and Social Change, to appreciate his attitude toward Christianity and to reappraise his controversial thesis. White's main area of research is the medieval technology, and his inquiry is continuously focused to the role of the religion in the development of technology. He believes that the Middle Ages were the decisive periods acquiring the leadership of the western technology over the world, and that the activist or voluntarist character of Latin Christianity provided the psychic foundations of technological inventiveness. In short, before and after 1967's article, he consistently insisted on the constructive role of Christian faith to the technology. In his “Lynn White's Medieval Technology and Social Change After Thirty Years,” Bert Hall explains “The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis,” signalled a turn away from White's earlier more optimistic vision of technology as an outcome of Christian humanitarianism. But I am not content to that explanation. White's basic stance that values derived from Christian beliefs are central to the shape and direction of western technology does not change. Borrowing Norman Cantor's terminology, White was an "outrider," whose works seemed too bold, problematic and extreme to become part of the main stream. In the panoply of 20th century's medievalists, White becomes an "outrider" consciously. Lamenting our ecologic crisis, he remains a churchman trying to find an alternative remedy which must be essentially Christian world-view. It was sufficient for him to have instilled some new ideas, or to have aroused latent thoughts. His 1967's article is included in these categories as much as his famous book, Medieval Technology and Social Change is.

The pope Gregory Ⅶ's reform plan had identified devastated Roman city with the Roman Catholic Church as an apostle see. The Roman church centered upon the two great basilicas, in the south-east St John Lateran, and in the north-west St Peter's. They made the eternal power of Christ and his apostles and saints tangibly present in the city that was the setting of papal rule and the center of pilgrimage. St Peter was the universal father and lord of all churches, lands, and individual Christians. His authority rested upon Christ's words to him in the New Testament. As mother, the Roman church was no mere symbol or emotional focus, its role was active and all-pervading as the active center of Christians unity and as the source of authentic faith and discipline. The obligation to follow Rome went far beyond legal duty. It was as the bond between good sons and their mother. Gregory followed the convention of his age by accepting that the enormous variety of rules from papal, synodical, and other sources which were inherited from the past constituted a kind of common law of the church. Whenever these tests were not satisfied, or when custom needed to be refined in the form of law, the pope had a right and a duty to make law. Pope Gregory Ⅶ was concerned for new knight and merchant classes. So he made penance rules on these people in Synods of November of 1078 and 1080. He ruled that anyone whose avocation in life could not be followed without sin - he instanced knights, merchants, and officials, and fell into grave sin, could not do true penance unless he laid aside his avocation and followed the counsel of religious men about his way of life. Pope Gregory Ⅶ planned to cross to Constantinople and help Christians who, being greatly vexed by the Saracens, eagerly besought his aid. So his hope was reunion of separated Eastern church. The reunion of the Churches was an especial concern of Gregory's earliest years as pope. St. Augustine of Hippo had, for the first time in Christian history, put forward a theory of the "just war." The clergy had not generally accepted this idea in middle of 11th century and took ambiguous attitude. The change of mind that occurred in the late eleventh century was largely owing to one man, pope Gregory Ⅶ. His reign saw the proclaiming of a new kind of soldier-saint. And earthy warfare could be an authentic part of the militia Christi. Following the change made by Gregory Ⅶ in the Church's attitude toward warfare, the Crusade offered the knight the remission of sins in and through the exercise of his martial skills. Even though Gregory did not rise expedition to the East, because of struggle with king Henry Ⅳ, his Crusade idea continued to armed pilgrimage during the next centuries.

The Feminity of the Jewish Men in the Cantar de mio Cid Young-keon Seo The Cantar de mio Cid is one of the earliest epics. The work narrates the events relating to the life of Castile's military leader, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, or the Cid. The two Jewish moneylenders, Rachel and Vidas are very interesting characters. Through the speech, manner, decision and actions imposed upon the characters of Rachel and Vidas, the Cantar de mio Cid paints them as though they were more like the women of the day than the men. The idealized men in the society organized for war are the Cid and Christian Castilian warriors referred to 'varones'. Rachel and Vidas don't follow the norms of the main society which encourage men to do in a manly way. They, representing the whole Jews of the time, reflect the demasculinization of Jewish men in the Castilian society. The language of Rachel and Vidas lacks force; they are powerless and incapable, and their gestures obedient and docile. They prefer the home to the battlefield, and live together in the house. They live a safe and comportable life, possibly engaging in homosexual behavior. By medieval standards, these figures are feminine. (Pusan National University / sardana@hanmail.net)

It is the purpose of this paper to examine in detail how Edward I, king of England, gained control over Scotland. Scotland was dependent on England in the thirteenth century. When Alexander III died suddenly in March 1286, there was uncertainty rather than a crisis over the succession. Failing the birth of a living child as heir, Maid of Norway, Alexander III’s granddaughter, acknowledged as rightful heir. The Treaty of Birgham was a marriage treaty uniting the heir of England with the heiress of Scotland. As Margaret, Maid of Norway, died suddenly in 1290, Edward I’s plan in Scotland would not work. Edward was himself planning to subjugate Scotland from the ‘Great Cause’. All the claimants agreed that Edward I was the rightful overlord and that they would abide by his judgement on the succession. And they did homage to the king of England as lord superior of the realm of Scotland. John Balliol was decided upon as king of Scotland by Edward I, and he enthroned as king of Scotland on St Andrew’s Day in 1292. On 26th December 1292 John Balliol did homage to Edward I, recognizing that Edward I was his sovereign lord. But tensions between King Edward I and King John became more obvious in 1295 because of news of the French alliance with Scotland and the judicial argument relating to the Macduff appeal in English court. King John did not discharge his homage, so King Edward I summoned him in England. Against his coercion, King John annulled the contract of homage with King Edward I. Scots say that if any king of Scotland make himself subject, it was for certain lands that the king of Scotland held in England. So Dunbar war broke out between Scotland and England in 1296. And Scotland was defeated in the war. After Dunbar war, Edward I did hold power and influence in Scotland. There was no Scots strong enough to resist Edward I. As soon as the time of William Wallace had come, Wars of Independence broke out. Both English and Scottish sources stress that John Comyn was a major obstacle to Robert Bruce’s ambitions in 1306. On 10 February 1306 Robert Bruce murdered John Comyn. After the event, he enthroned king of Scotland. We must consider that the event was civil war.

카스틸리오네는 하나하나의 검증된 단편 사실들 혹은 그와 관련되어 자기가 빚어낸 허구적 상황 등의 개별적인 부분들을 종합하여, 이상화된 우르비노 궁정이라는 역사세계를 만들어낸 것이다. 이러한 문학적 작업은 다양한 차원의 부분들을 일련의 연쇄적 관계 속에서 파악하고 이를 다시 종합하여 단일한 작품, 즉 하나의 이야기를 구성하는 것을 의미한다. 이와 관련하여 더욱 흥미로운 사실은, 그가 제시하는 이상적인 궁정인도 다양한 덕의 종합적 총체로 구성될 때 비로소 그 참된 빛을 발하게 된다는 점이다. 궁정인의 행위규범에 대해 논의하면서 카스틸리오네는 다음과 같이 이야기한다.우리의 궁정인은 모든 행동에 주의를 기울여야 하고, 언제나 분별력 있게 말하고 행동해야 한다. 그리고 궁정인은 다양한 부분과 자질에서 우수해야 할 뿐만 아니라, 그의 삶의 색조도 그와 마찬가지로 개별적인 부분들과 일치해야하고, 언제 어디에서나 모순 없이 모든 훌륭한 자질들이 하나의 전체를 구성하도록 해야 한다. 따라서 그의 모든 행동은 모든 덕에서 유래하고 모든 덕으로 구성되어야 한다(2권 7장).

Byung-Chul Lim By proposing Castiglione as a pivotal figure reflecting a cultural tension of the Renaissance between optimistic idealism and the recognition of complex realities, the present study aims to interpret his famous book, Il Cortegiano, within a concrete historical context. This study puts much emphases upon his own words that regard the work as a portrait and fashion himself as a lowly painter. Interpreting such expressions provide us with useful insight with which not only to understand the very nature of the work and the author himself but also to place it within a larger context of Italian Renaissance’s literary and artistic cultures. In light of the above perspective, two Renaissance ideas appear most conspicuous in Castiglione's work: first, a new concept of time and its visual representation; second, the concept of arts as the creative imitation of nature or antiquity. To put it more concretely, Castiglione's work posed itself as a portrait by which he challenged the formidable power of time as the destroyer rather than simply represented the court of Urbino in its reality. In addition, such an identification of a literary work with a painting was conceptually based upon the Renaissance idea of art which regarded it as the productive union of imitation and creation, and of which ultimate goal was to forge a narrative. Taking these two points into serious consideration, the present study claims that Il libro del Cortegiano was a work representing Renaissance ideas about arts and time at its core. (Silla University / limbch@silla.ac.kr)

This study fathoms one of the political strategies of Queen Elizabeth I by scrutinizing her policy to keep the balance of power between her ministers. Being determined to keep domestic peace and security of her reign, Elizabeth was keenly aware of the importance of the balance of power in her court. She knew how factional rivalry was deep-seated in court politics and how factional struggles over power influenced state policy through rival stands on the matrimonial and diplomatic issues through her early experiences. Queen Elizabeth created two factions led by William Cecil and Robert Dudley. Cecil was the leader of reform-minded intellectuals and Protestants through his Cambridge connection. While Dudley became the leader and parton of people from old families of nobility who were mainly enthusiastic in winning their political power by their military achievements. The fountain of political power of Elizabethan politicians was the queen's personal favor that she distributed based on their personal loyalty and obedience to her. Although both Cecil and Dudley were closest favorites of Elizabeth, she divided political powers between them and controlled factional balance which ultimately functioned as the security of her own power as a monarch. She secured the stability of her regime by driving her favorites to compete with each other over her favor. In this way, she could keep the factional balance in her court until the late period of her reign. Queen Elizabeth's political strategies are motivated from her perception of her public role as a ruler. She wanted to be a successful monarch by governing her state well, using the “balance of power” as one of her consistent policies during her reign. In short, the ultimate goal of her creation of court factions among her favorites was to secure her safety and power as a monarch.