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When Roman(Byzantine) Glass did it flowed through what kind of course in Shilla? Scholars presume Roman(Byzantine) Glass flowed in Shilla in the late 4th-the late 5th century. But they did not concretely described the reason of the time and what kind of course to Shilla. I analyzed the time and what kind of course to Shilla relating with byzantine trade policy to the eastern country in the 5th-the early 6th century. I presume the time was from 407 to 481 years. The 407 year was the first time of delivery of Roman(Byzantine) Glass from Koguryo to Shilla. The 481 year was the time of an invasion of Koguryo to the north of Shilla. I presume the course from Byzantium to Shilla was a road through Persia. Byzantium took a passive attitude in trade. Byzantium Exported Roman(Byzantine) Glass through Persia to China from 384 to 502 years considering the political situation which is caused by wars.

Carolingian monasticism has been the subject of much excellent scholarship in recent years especially of German origin, just like D. Geuenich, J. Semmler and J. Wollasch. This paper concerns the Rule of Benedict which had long been dominated in the Frankish kingdoms, from the 630s onwards it had often been combined with Columban's monastic rule, but gradually, was to gain supremacy within the Carolingian realm. Benedict of Aniane, the 'second Benedict', increasingly came to the foreground in the efforts to bind all monks and nuns to the Rule of Benedict and in so doing he became the mentor of young King Louis the Pious. When Louis became emperor in 814, Benedict was soon at his side as religious adviser, as an 'imperial abbot', who tried to root out older monastic traditions in the Carolingian realm, acting strictly and rigidly against communities that had lapsed into canonical life. The reform of older monastic life in the regulae mixtae not only to one rule, regula Benedicti, but also to a unified custom, una consuetudo, was called "Aniane Reform" in general. There is, however, no apparent explanation for meaning of 'Aniane', whether it means the region in Septimania or the person Benedict. So, first this paper tries to find out the meaning of "Aniane". Then we investigate the monastic community movement concerning with the reform movement of Benedict of Aniane.

Between May 1291 and November 1292 King Edward I spent a very great deal of time on the northern frontier of his realm, engaged upon the problem of the succession to the throne of the kingdom of Scotland. Since the eighteenth century, this famous affair has been known as ‘Great Cause’. The law of succession in the thirteenth century was by no means firmly settled in all its principle. Edward I had acted as overlord of Scotland, instead of insisting that he be recognized as an arbitrator between the thirteenth claimants. Robert Bruce's claim for a part of Scotland was declared incompatible with his former claim for the impartible whole. Therefore he shall gain nothing. Now at last the throne of Scotland was awarded to John Balliol. Stress is laid on the impartible of Scotland on primogeniture. On 17 November 1292 the final judgement was given. Arrangements were announced for Balliol to swear fealty and do homage to Edward. He was enthroned at Scone on 30 November 1292. In here, Edward said that, if need be, he will summon the King of Scots to England to answer for complaints. On the death of Malcolm, Earl of Fife, his heir was an infant. The earl's brother, Macduff, claimed a portion of the estate. When his claim was dismissed by the Bishop of St Andrews, he appealed to King Edward during the Interregnum. Edward ordered that Macduff's claim be tried by the Guardians, who decided in his favour. Edward and his legal advisers drew up a code of regulations, based on English common law, aimed at controlling and penalising John's disobedience. King John have to appeared to answer in the case of Macduff's matters. John refused to answer according to Treaty of Birgham, which had agreed that all Scottish lawsuits would be determined in Scotland. On 23 April 1296, the main English army set out along the coast road from Berwick into Dunbar in Scotland. Edward I's army warred down King John. Because of overlordship given to Edward I by claimants, King John and his son Edward were taken by sea to England.

Recently old age in history is attracting more attention. Before the establishment of legal retirement and old-age pension, the old were not recognized as a distinct social group, and consequently nor there was such as 'old-age problem'. In effect, from antiquity to medieval times old age was represented in two extremes: it was, on the one hand, often idealized as a synonym for wisdom and virtues, and on the other hand, usually held in contempt and derision as useless 'subhuman' far from being 'superman'. Similarly these dual images reappeared in the gerontological or utopian discourses. For the most part of the middle ages, the concept of old age also remained very ambiguous. It was not well distinguished from the maturity, and to medieval minds human life was fundamentally an indivisible bloc which began at baptism and ended with burial. To most of religious and military strata, physical health was a more essential factor than age in their retiring, and still more to peasants, the greater part of the population. In short, something like a modern life-cycle did not exist, wherein old age constituted a distinct stage. But with the rise of movements pursuing more peaceful retirement, there had been perceived certain changes, which fissured little by little the long-term phenomenon of the 'absence of old age'. Some prelates, monks, feudatories and rich citizens were willing to retire into a monastery, and among them prevailed the practice of ensuring their remaining years by procuring a pension from religious establishments, or especially a corrody in England. Along with this practice, the charitable works for the miserable old steadily increased. Finally, some peasants increasingly counted on the contract of transfer of properties on the condition of maintenance in old age.

This article aims to answer the question why Europeans craved for the oriental spices with passion during the Middle Ages, which would drive them to the edges of the world in their pursuit. It investigates in detail several aspects concerning the spices. First, it clarifies the meaning of the medieval latin word, species, from which the modern spices derived. The species had designated almost everything produced in the soil and came to signify only modern common spices such as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cloves etc. This article shows that the major oriental spices in common use were pepper, ginger and cinnamon. Then it explores for what purposes Europeans used spices. Their two main usages were culinary and pharmaceutic. Many cookbooks of the Later Middle Ages testify that spices were essential ingredients for most of medieval recipes. Spices were everywhere in medieval gastronomy. Spices also were considered drugs. The importance of spices in the medicine was their role in harmonizing the body's primary fluids, or humors. According to theories of health in the Middle Age, health as well as personality were governed by four bodily fluids, the four humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. To have healthy living was to prevent humoral imbalance. Spices were mostly hot and dry and therefore effective at counteracting the moist or cold properties of many kinds of meat and fish. Finally, it investigates marvellous and fantastic imageries of spices. The Orient or more specifically the India represented a marvellous land full of valuables gems, aromatic plants, strange humans and animals for Europeans. One of the most fantastic beliefs was that spices were brought down by the rivers of the earthly Paradise or found in the regions of the India, specially near the Paradise. The most famous of dreamlands in Asia was the kingdom of Prester John where spices were produced near the fountain of Youth deriving from the Paradise. For those reasons, oriental spices had mysterious effects. In summary, not only practical usages of spices but also mystification of spices have driven Europeans to search for the kingdom of Christians and spices in the Later Middle Ages.

In this article, I've tried to figure out some crucial aspects of the later Lollards compared to the early Wycliffites at Oxford. The key themes that led Wyclif to the papal condemnation were mainly his theory on secular dominion and the denial of transubstantiation at the sacrament. These were linked to the germing of nationalism and anti-papalism in late medieval England. However, since Sir John Oldcastle's rebellion the characteristics of the Lollards gradually were changed keeping their identity more radically away from the thought of Wyclif and early Wycliffites. I have chosen three main themes representing the ideas of late Lollardy: (1) the rejection of the images in the church, (2) anti-clericalism, (3) emphasis on English literacy. Although the later Lollards remained without a leader or center, the clandestine use and circulation of vernacular pamphlets and books would be a good way of developing their identity. For them, the independent reading and understanding of vernacular scriptures and books were the main weapon to counter the current church hierarchy. The rejection of the images and the development of anti-clericalism were the logical conclusion of their own interpretation of the Bible because they believed that no biblical endorsement was found regarding these themes. The clear self-consciousness of the vernacular was a comfortable landmark to distinguish the early Wycliffites from the later Lollards.

In recent decades medieval historians have made significant progress in the field of women's history. However, there is still the lingering concern that the discipline of women's history remains in the periphery of medieval historiography. A gender-based approach to medieval history has been proposed as an answer to remedy this situation and help women's history to be fully incorporated into the main body of medieval historiography. With this view in mind, the aim of this article is to introduce major works of gender-based approach in recent medieval historiography. This article tries to achieve this goal by classifying works of gender-based approach into two groups and discussing them in detail respectively. The first group of historians criticizes traditional women's history for its emphasis on manly women and the idealization of male sexuality. They propose the proper appreciation of female sexuality in its own terms. The second group of historians focuses on the investigation of male sexuality in the social and cultural context of the Middle Ages. They believe that male sexuality as well as female has long been misunderstood and even distorted. Their studies primarily aim to restore male sexuality in its proper position.