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The intention of the LIBRI CAROLINI in the reign of Charlemagne Kyung-Soo Kim This paper examines the Libri Carolini's religiopolitical dimensions as splitting forces between the Eastern and the Western Christianity. This is done from the perspective of the spirit of the Reformation, which highlights the priority of the Bible, since the religiopolitical dimension of the Libri Carolini could provide the identity of Western Christianity. The author of the Libri Carolini wanted to denounce the restoration of images claimed by the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, providing its own theological and ideological interpretation of the images, even though the real issue of the iconoclastic controversy was never understood in the West because of the misinterpretation of the reports of the Council. In order to refute the restoration of images in the East, to seek the true tradition of the Church, based on Scriptures, was crucial for the author of the Libri Carolini. It is the Scriptures, in which the author of the Libri Carolini tried to redefine the concepts of images and to seek the true tradition in the viewpoint of the West. This kind of rethinking of tradition relied on the Scriptures in Charlemagne's time was one of the religiopolitical dimensions, which was the spirit of the Reformation and splitting forces between the East and the West.

By the Middle Ages in the Westem society the women’'s participation in W따.fare of all sorts would be in principle not allowed, but in the reality has been taken place. Notwithstanding the forms of their participation show the certain pattems, which the women played largely passive and defensive roles rather than active and independent ones and their contribution to the warfares remained just underestimated. The pattems go back to the Amazon, who as the women' s warrior group has exerted an extensive influence on the Westem society. Under the feudal lordships it was permitted that the women tool‘' arms in any critical situations, or to avenge their enemies. In the large part medieval warfares have aimed not to keep the common wealth from foreign threat, but to secure the interests of noble families. Warfares were usually raids of small-scale. Gender differences played in this situation only a little role. It is important that the male chroniclers were aware of the dichotomy of gender roles, as in the crusade chronicles clearly demonstrated. In the early stages of the crusades men and women could take vow and consequently participate in the movements, regardless of sex, age, even status. In the thirteenth century however the social atmosphere to the women’'s participation proved to be antagonistic, though admittedly the preachers in the twelfth century had been not friendly for women. There was difference between the home front for women and the field front for men. The redemption of cross vow with money had applied largely to women. Paradoxically as the more people had interest in crusades, women were eliminated from them. Historians have underestimated the roles of women in warfares, focusing mainly on prostitution and auxiliary functions. One must consider that the sources of which the greatest part had been written by the c1ergy and consequently reflected their mora1 sight. Given the crusades were never possible without the support system of women, it has to be changed our viewpoint which warfare should be the unique task of the military.

The eleventh century was a very significant era in the history of church in that the generalization of systematic decretal collections lead to more organized, logical and more well-selected form. It is also in this period that papal sovereignty which asserted that the Roman church should be the center of unification of church and the pope should lead the christian world became one of the core subjects in canonical collections. It can also be said that the fundamental works for the expansion and reinforcement of papalism in the 12th and 13th century were prepared during this time. In this way the volition of Roman church brought about the vigorous canonical collections through the reform period after the mid-eleventh century. The collections of decreta1s until the reform period were private works. The offici머researches and collections of canon law began from Innocent m in 1210. Even if the collections of decreta1s were conducted by either personal request of the Pope or for the offering to him, they were done privately before this time. So not only the contents of the decretals could be collected focusing on the preferred materials by the editors intention, but also alterations were frequent. The Pseudo-Isidore decretals which consisted of 10，아() decretals are well known to be assembled by combinations of re머and fake decretals. The cannonists in the reform period boldly brought those laws in to the reformed canon law collections regardlessly, while they were thought to be well aware of the actual reality of these documents. Accordingly, in the process of adopting those decreta1s, they made an elaborate effort in their works in accordance with their intentions After the investigation of the reformed canon law in the eleventh century, the first collection of decretals that reflected the Roman reformists’intention was the Humbert’Ãs Collection of 74 Titles. Even though it had some distances with the spirit of Gregory, this collection was used as a textbook through the Gregorian reform period. Gregory VII was not a canonist or theologist, but an active politician. However, there were outstanding canonists arouncl him like Anselm of Lucca, Bonizo of Sutri, Cardinal Deuscledit who bestowed authority onto his spirit. Despite the agreement of the central spirit of Gregorγ ， the results macle by them were quite clifferent. In anyway, it seems Anselm of Lucca who made their collections most pertinent to Gregory VII's refoπn spirit.

Bemard of Clairvaux has been regarded as a prominent intellectual who represented the monastic leaming in the 12th century. In my view, many researches regarding Bemard as an intellectual focused on either his saintless or his negative attitude toward the function of reason. However, these approaches failed to explain the reality of the theory of leaming of Bemard and its meaning in the 12th cent따 in which the traditional learning of monasteries was competing with the new schools of dialecticians. To answer these questions, 1 have reconstructed his theory of leaming considering its social meaning and contemporary meaning as well Bemard thinks that the understanding of human being is closely related with his view of knowledge. According to him, the nature of human being is characterized by rationality and mortality, and intellectual activities are rational movement. Bemard also emphasizes the role of sensitivity no less than that of reason. On the other hand it is significant to understand the fact that Bemard has an integrated view of learning. In other word, every learning or religious wisdom which has the power to move human mind, whether it is acquired through reason or mtation， should be expressed in words in order to get sympathy from others, and should be practiced to accomplish its proper value. Thus Bemard opened the way to the knowledge to everyone including the laity. His view of reflection shows this. Although he was involved in the affairs of the world. Bemard of Clairvaux defined himself as a monk-intellectual. This view also reflects his understanding of learning, whose value should be shared by everyone beyond the clergy and be applied to other areas beyond the wall of monastery. Bemard’s criticism of Peter Abelard had two targets to solve the religious problem and to integrate the society. In short, as a monk Bemard was a conservative and practical intellectual who defended monastic learning and catholic orthodox, and applied them into the contemporary society.

Records, traces left from the past, are available sources for historians who try to explain historical facts. This article attempts to understand the Italian merchants and their commercial world through their records. One of the most important operations of the Italian merchants was to record their commercial activities. They wrote three to four letters a week, made accounting books, and established price lists of market goods or transcribed correspondence. Although their documents are various in kind, depending on diverse commercial operations such as vending, buying, packing, recording, sending and etc, only a few records have been preserved. The most perfectly preserved are those left by a merchant of Prato, small city of Tuscany, Francesco di Marco Datini: about five hundreds of accounting books, one hundred forty thousands of letters, many hundreds of price lists and etc. Correspondence, especially that of the Datini Company, shows that commercial contact and communication were more intense and frequent in the Later Middle Ages than the previous centuries. As exchange of merchandises and their volume increased and it became rare for merchants to accompany their goods in the transportation drawing close to the Later Middle Ages, it was more necessary to send an invoice in great details where many pieces of the information for the merchandises were to be written. Commercial records also demonstrate that merchants became rather sedentary than itinerant. This transformation made it more essential to keep an accounting book more accurately and systematically, because a master in the metropole wanted to be fully informed by his agents in foreign lands to control his business. Especially Venice, Genoa and Florence were rapid to make a new method of accounting, that is, double-entry bookkeeping, which would spread later to the rest of Europe. This change from single to double-entry bookkeeping testifies that there was a noticeable transformation in the character of the merchants and their commerce. In conclusion, many kinds of documents produced by the medieval Italian merchants show that their commercial world was quite dynamic and international, with commercial exchange being active and routine. Such a laborious contact promoted both competition and commercial innovation, for example, double-entry bookkeeping. Those records also testify that the Italian merchants were more capitalistic, more profit-seeking and freer from religious constraints than ordinary medieval populace such as peasants and clergymen. However, these remarks should be accepted with reservations. The medieval Italian merchants and their commercial world represented only a facet of the medieval European society. Moreover, it needs to be noted that the very little preservation of records could limit one’s understanding of the Italian merchants and their commercial world.

Regulations for Clothing and Accessories in Medieval Cities. A Case Study of Göttingen Heung-Sik Park Form ancient times, clothing has served as an indicator of one's social class, status, and power. Thus, rulers imposed a strict regulation on the clothing and accessories of their people. This study is designed to analyze the Middle Ages clothing regulations and the institutional and social characteristics reflected on them. To reveal the general social characteristics within fashion codes, Goettingen, a German city was chosen. A thorough analysis was conducted on the clothing and accessories from mid 14th century to late 15th century. A city's regulations for clothing and accessories was a major constraint in the daily lives of ordinary citizens in the medieval times. The determining factor in different regulations for clothing and accessories was wealth, which leads to the conclusion that social status was set according to the amount of material possession. In the late-Middle Ages, the municipal council enacted laws to take systematic control of both public and private lives of its citizens. Ithad to bring new laws into force in line with the changes of fashion. Thus, the progress in fashion clearly had a significant impact on regulations for clothing and accessories. However, the council faced numerous obstacles in imposing regulations on the public, despite its utmost efforts. People had the constant desire to make a statement through their choice of clothing and accessories. At that time, changes began to occur in the class-based social structure. Citizens' perception towards their bodies and life advanced. Their desire for extravagance and luxury accelerated the changes of the times.

A Study on the Methodology for the Occidental Old Handwriting Studies Jung-Ha Kim Nowadays, paleography is extended to not only the study on the producer of documents but the general culture of society above the dimension in the technical facts of the calligraphy study and the utility of simple reading. This trend obviously contrasts the fact that had focused on the academic research and simple reading on the calligraphy till 19th century. Study on the paleography in Western document trends takes essential role in the traditional archival management such as the excavation, evaluation, conservation and utilization. It means that this role is the product of tradition which studied a relation between content and style together. The most important fact in reading an old handwriting is to hold a professional knowledge which means cultural and descriptive features in the used calligraphy, because the calligraphy is the very social and cultural fact which represents change of the generation and culture. This means the Humanists reinvented the Carolinger handwriting to create new culture, regarded it as a changing aspect in the new era. In other words, a newly invented handwriting style, mean and additional ideology took important role in the Renaissance when it happened gradual and total social change. It could be realized a concrete value when reading an old handwriting is transcribed. It should be considered that the transcription has to be understand reading the paragraphs which are including alphabetic form, abbreviation, 'ligature', 'nesso' in those of old writing. The value of translation cannot overcome the limit of the translated age, right transcription could preserve the liveliness and efficiency beyond the age and region. In addition, if the proposal is premised it could be easier when we study on the style of making document which sustain the form of making at the time.