Earticle

Jerusalem Church was the matrix of early Christianity. Various kinds of followers of Jesus gathered into Jerusalem Church. They had diverse opinions on the directions of Christianity. Because each of them wanted to lead the Church to his cause, serious troubles and conflicts in the development of early Church were inevitable. Furthermore the pressure of Judaism and the zeal of nationalism of the Jews intensified these conflicts. The Hebraic Jews wished to keep Christianity within the boundaries of Judaism. Although they wanted to reform Judaism through the faith of Messiah and the hope of parousia, they continued to observe strictly the Law and to participate in the worship of the Temple. On the other hand the Grecian Jews wanted to reform more radically Judaism in the matter of the Law and the Temple. The leaders of Jews in Jerusalem could not admit the argumentation of the Grecian Jews. They persecuted the Grecian Jews of Jerusalem Church. After the Grecian Jews left Jerusalem Church, The Hebraic Jews were conservatized more and more. Because the ‘Galilees’ who were the early members of the Hebraic Jews and had more progressive opinions were banished by the rulers fo the Jews. Thereafter ‘the circumcised believers’ who were composed of ex-Pharisees and had most conservative opinions became the greater part of the Hebraic Jews. The Grecian Jews who left Jerusalem founded new church in Antioch. In founding the church they preached their Gospel to Gentiles. They argued that Gentiles could be believers without circumcision. So the Antioch Church strengthened the theology of the Grecian Jews of Jerusalem Church. ‘The circumcised believers’ dispatched men to compel the Gentiles to circumcise. The Apostolic Council was held to decide whose opinion be correct. It decided the Gentiles would not receive circumcision and observe the Law. This decision is very important because it is impossible for ordinary Jews to permit such kind of decision. Paul interpreted the decision of the Apostolic Council as abolishing the discrimination against the Gentiles. Peter and the believers of the Antioch Church agreed on his interpretation at first. But as certain men who came from James arrived, Peter and the believers of Antioch Church began to draw back and separate themselves from the Gentiles because they were afraid of those who belonged to the circumcision group. So Paul left the Antioch. He propagated his faith around the Aegean Sea. Then he succeeded to found his churches. ‘The circumcised believers’ of Jerusalem Church attacked the churches of Paul and took over several churches of Paul. In event the prime movers of the early Christianity in 50-70 were ‘the circumcised believers’ of Jerusalem Church. If they had not disappeared after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman armies, the early Christianity would have gone the other way.

Aelia Pulcheria was the daughter of Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and Empress Aelia Eudoxia. When her father Arcadius died in 408, her brother Theodosius II was made Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, at seven years old. On July 4, 414 a fifteen year old Pulcheria proclaimed herself regent over her brother, then thirteen, and made herself Augusta and Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. Pulcheria took a vow of virginity when she became Augusta. Pulcheria's reasons for a vow of virginity may have been for her deeply religious virtue and her deep piety. Pulcheria had found herself in a position where she would have to give her power up to her potential husband, for once a woman in the imperial court married her power was to be relinquished to her husband. In order for Pulcheria to keep her power within the imperial court she took a vow of virginity to ensure that another man could not share her power. She also adopted model of ‘the New Helena'. The fathers identified Pulcheria with the famous mother of Constantine the Great. Most of Marcian and Pulcheria's time as emperors was marked with religious conflict like issues with Nestorianism and the Council of Chalcedon. The Council of Ephesus occurred in Theodosius's reign and involved two rival bishops. Nestorius, who was bishop of Constantinople, and Cyril of Alexandria. Nestorius was an advocate of diminishing the influence of the Mother of God, or Theotokos, from the Church. This came into conflict with the religious values Pulcheria represented as a virgin Empress, and a rivalry between the two ensued. Nestorius underestimated Pulcheria's power. With the council at a standstill with no decision made, Theodosius had to make the decision for them. On the influence of Pulcheria, Theodosius ruled in favor of Cyril that the title of Theotokos was orthodox. During her time as Augusta, Pulcheria held a great deal of power in politics and although she was a women treated equally among other men of power. In the senate of Constantinople lay a bust in her honor along with the other Augusti. Finally the meaning of Pulcheria's being in the byzantine women's history was in the imitation placed upon her actions for power by the byzantine posterior empresses.

The ritual of excommunication by which excommunication was to be promulgated in the form of regular procedure appeared at least after the ninth century. From this time the ritual excommunication was performed as a sort of liturgy in the pontifical. The ritual excommunications were composed in different types and contents according to times and regions, in which they were used. Although most of excommunication formulae had the contents of the supernatural authority, separation and prohibition punishment, and malediction in common, they showed different language, key point, and length of sentences. From the late ninth to tenth centuries occasional excommunication formulae were written. Most representative among them was that from Reims diocese. As an early form of excommunication formula, occasional excommunication imposed anathema on the excluded in terms of eternal perish and malediction. In the similar age as the occasional formulae, newly appeared Pontificale Romano-Germanicum(PRG) formulae circulated actively in Holy Roman Empire and sparsely in Italy. This PRG composed of five kinds of formulae was inserted in pontifical which was used by bishop for liturgies. Bishops chose one of them for the pronounce of excommunication in accordance to the forms of crime. When abbot Regino of Purüm composed canon law in 900 to 906, he collected six PRG formulae in his collection. They were collected in Decretum Libri Viginti composed by Burchard of Worms, and Panormia composed by Ivo of Chartres in the eleventh century. Gratian collected two formulae among them in his Decretum of 1140. Through the collection in the canon law, excommunication formulae attracted the concern of canonists, and were intensively debated by them.

This paper focuses on the relationship between the space and social construction of gender in the medieval English nunneries. Gender is socially created and historically varied force through material culture and space. The medieval English nunnery architecture and location is the teaching method for the nuns and religious women to shape their social identities and roles. Nunnery's use of space was important for religious women. Later medieval nunneries were less common than religious houses for men. Nunneries affiliated to the Benedictine order had been founded later than their male counterparts, and at lower economic scales. In contrast to their male counterparts, nunneries were not endowed for achieving their self-sufficiency. Even though the architecture of nunneries was based on standard monastic forms, nunnery cloisters developed slowly and located at the north of church. Because the nunneries shared their churches with parochial congregation, the number of secular people visiting their precincts was significant. I would argue that these nunneries were established for different purposes than the monastery by a different social group. The nuns might be supported by lower and middle class people for their religious and pious practice. The space of the nunneries-location and architecture- would have taught and disciplined the different social identities and roles of the religious female than the male religious person.

The reign of Philip V the Long(1316-1322) is marked by enfeeblement of the kingship and challenges of the members of the political society, produced under the influence of the ‘ligues nobiliaires’ who have contested the concentrated kingship of Philip IV the Fair in 1314-1315. But his accession to the throne accompanied by his violent political act, a near-coup d’Etat and unjust exclusion of the daughter of Louis X, his elder brother, from the royal succession, weakened more critically his authority. He could receive neither financial aids nor councils of peers and strong nobles of the kingdom. In addition, he had to war against two rebels, of the Flanders and the Artois. This situation make him communicate with the members of the political society. In the purpose for this political communication, id. in order to persuade them of his authority, he organized ceaselessly and ardently 28 regional and general assemblies. In this communication, it is important to focus on the role of the religious authority. The University of Paris legitimate the succession of Philip V with the sanctification of the capetian dynasty continued only by the male blood and the Papacy did not cease to address letters to grand nobles in order to appeal to assist the kingship. Moreover, the pope John XXII was unstinting in his political and financial supports on Philip V, who have supported himself to be a pope at the conclave in 1316. In fact, the pope’s conduct is not that of theocracy but that of pastorship: he is not dominator of the secular power but its mentor or supporter in the domain of political ethics. In this way the religious authority intervene in political affairs after the lost of the universal domination with the death of Boniface VIII. Especially, it make the royal government be effective by imposing the religious authority under the mask of the royal sovereignty. A rupture of royal power or an articulation between the sovereignty and the governmentality cannot preserve their connection without the intervention and the functionality of the religious authority at the moment of the birth of the modern state in the Late Middle Ages.