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Pope GregoryⅡ: Loyal Subject or Drastic Revolutionary? Kyung-Koo Lee Pope GregoryⅡ was a typical revolutionary when we define a revolution as a daring attempt to explore ways toward epochal changes. In order to achieve his final object, Gregory extremely made a struggle against Byzantine Emperor LeoⅢ who tried to deprive him of his papal position and then at last to kill him. In this attitude, we can see his appearance as a bold revolutionary. When a serious conflict between the Pope and the Emperor broke owing to the problems of heavy taxes and iconoclasm, Gregory instigated Italians to make a overall resistance to the Byzantine Empire. The Pope was a prominent politician who could transmute the economic problem of taxation and the religious problem of iconoclasm into political issues. He made Italians realize that Italy is not a province of Byzantine Empire but an independent, autonomous community. His political leadership, that is, awoke Italians to their national consciousness. We can also see his attitude as a able revolutionary in that he concentrated on the energy of Italian people and used it to accomplish the ultimate aim of establishment of papal power in Italy. Based on the active support of Italians, GregoryⅡ made the Roman Church independent from the oppression of Byzantine Emperor. He became a true head of the Western Church because the Roman Church got out of the restraint of the Byzantine Church. As a natural consequence it follows that Caesaro-Papism of Byzantine Emperor began to lose its significance in reality. Thus, acting as a defender of the interest of Italians, Gregory gained their enthusiastic support and achieved his aim eventually. On that point, we can see an appearance of a revolutionary from him. GregoryⅡ also took an active hand in the political affair of Italy. He not only excluded the political intervention of Byzantines in Italy but also prevented Lombards from establishing a united kingdom in Italian peninsula. He proved himself an able politician using the papal power at one time and using the negotiation with his rivals at other times. By various means, he prevented one powerful force from grasping whole Italy, and then tried to hold himself the political scene of the peninsula eventually. He layed a firm foundation for turning the world order of the past centered on Byzantine Emperors into the new order centered on the Papacy. In short, he was an drastic revolutionary who opened a new chapter of the church history. (Chonbuk National University / kklee@jbnu.ac.kr)

The Peace of God's Role and Its Historical Significance from the Council of Charroux to That of Clermont Jeong-Min Lee During the final quarter of the tenth century, the peace of God that was first proclaimed in Aquitaine and Burgundy was especially developed with Franc as center. It was brought forth by the church not only for the sake of protecting the defenseless against the violence but also for the sake of reconfirming to prohibit the armed from pillaging the possessions and the domestic animals. Furthermore, during 1030s and 1040s it was extended to the truce of God that endeavored to stop all violence making a pause momentarily. For seeking to propagate the movement of peace, the church made an attempt to forbid violence on the list of certain days and seasons. This article designs to examiner that the tradition of peace and the christian ethics, accomplished by the peace and truce of God, had constantly influenced to the formation of ideology for the first crusade, as well as, it aims to catch the peace of God's role and its historical significance. To answering it, in first, we suggest to make out the peace of God's character and its role to settle the impending demand by the church that made efforts to reestablish the social structure and to reinforce its authority. Secondly, we will regarder the peace of God's development including the truce of God as the movement of peace. Lastly, we try to observer the speech of pope Urbanus II in Clermont for the purpose of testifying the consistence through the movement of peace from the council of Charroux to that of Clermont. It is certainly said that the peace and truce of God played an important part in France where the reformed papacy was accepted without any particular resistance. In considering preaching of the first crusader at Clermont, it is possible to say that pope Urbanus II must be inspired by the movement of the peace of God. (Gyeongsang National University / poohcrescentia@hanmail.net)

The Disciplines and the Academic Trends Appeared in the Didascalicon of Hugh of St. Victor Hee-Man Lee This aims to shed light on the theory of knowledge and the academic trend appeared in the Didascalicon by Hugh of St. Victor who was a prominent scholar at Paris. In 12th century private schools began to be established on the left bank of the Seine at Paris. Grown up on the educational tradition of the monastery, particularly Augustinian tradition, Hugh accepted so-called 'profane' knowledge like Plato and Aristotle. They became also the important foundation of his theory of knowledge. I agree to the fact that the Didascalicon was written to serve as a guide for the beginners to study advanced knowledge like theology. But in my view Didascalicon was also written to criticize the intellectuals now, that is to say, the intransigent theologians such as Cistercians and the exaggerated dialectics like Peter Abelard. Through this criticism, Hugh urged the beginners for the advanced studies to have a balanced view of knowledge. On the other hand, in the Didascalicon Hugh shows his worry about the secularization of the academic world. Put it another, he raised two important problems such as the hurriedness of students who had a desire to get material reward by finishing the courses as possible as soon and the showoff of the teachers in order to get more refutation and students. He thought that they became serious obstacles to develop knowledge. To solve these problems Hugh made his own definition of the disciplines. Through it he put the emphasis on the possibility of the various interpretation of the Bible on the basis of the quadrivium and the mechanical arts such as commerce, agriculture which had been neglected for a long time. In short, the Didascalicon of Hugh of St. Victor was designed to serve as a guide for the beginners and criticize the secularization of the education now and the obstinate attitude of some theologians who would not take new approach from profane works. (National Institute of Korean History / leeunice@hanmail.net)

St. Francis(can friars)' New Responses to Social Changes and Rise of Cities in the Medieval West Young-Jae Lee When St. Francis was born at Assisi in 1182, the Western Europe society had been transformed. His father was a successful cloth merchant. What is most interesting is that this merchant's son sought to lead a chivalrous lifestyle. After his conversion, however, St. Francis had broken with mundane life totally. He followed absolute poverty. Also he needed the sacraments and, the first among them, the Eucharist. Francis, then, may now be perceived as orthodox and traditional son. So then, was he not really an innovator? What is Francis' revolutionary life? The first, in taking Christ himself, and no longer his apostles, as a model, he engaged Christianity in an imitation of God-Man. By proposing as a programme a positive ideal, open to love for all creatures and all creation, rooted in joy and not in sadness, he revolutionized the medieval and Christian sensibility and rediscovered a basic joyfulness. Also the rapid growth of Francis's third order was peculiarly unpredictable. The Rule of its order created a potent political weapon. One of them, by his or her oath to the pope, a member became subject only to canon law and was immune from a secular action. It would inhibit the newly created republican communes from abusing their authority to mobilize a militia and wage war unreasonably. Therefore third order members could be experienced liberal conception. The second, St. Francis was addressed to everyone. He rooted this missionary concern in a profound need to embraced all of society, globally and individually. Here what is manifest above all is the desire to consider society as a set of categories that are all equal on the level of salvation. The third, the saint' ideal of equality wanted to lead brother' uniformity as a fraternitas. The concept of fraternity also broke the 'three order system' which 'laborans' depended on 'oratores' and 'bellatores'. 'Oratores' and 'laborans' identified with the clergy and the laity. So fraternity ideal included the democratic one. The last, as Franciscan friars and the third orders expanded all of Europe, their urban culture had flowered in the Western society. For example, voluntary donation for the poor or church, founding charity hospital, protection for the poor and weak, simple and ascetic life, gentle manner and beneficence. Thus until now, Francis' way of life is so valid for our modern society as a model. (Soongsil University / marisstella@hanmail.net)

The Universal Superiority of Pope and Excommunication in the Thirteenth Century Chun-Chul Chang It can be said the dream for the universal superiority of pope came true during the thirteenth century. Pope Innocent III considered that pope had the sacerdotal and kingly powers coincidentally within the Christianitas and stood on the summit of this world. Pope Innocent IV maintained that pope was the sole caput in the Christianitas and had the temporal power under the regimen unius personae. That pope had the temporal power not only signified that rule on the secular matters belonged to the world order led by church, but also meant that all the things of spiritual and mundane world could be dominated by pope. Popes of the thirteenth century thought that they had obligation to keep the peace of European world and their spiritual and temporal superiority as the Vicar of Christ. If anybody hindered the papal policy for peace, he should be disciplined through excommunication. To keep peace in the society had been the significant matter of concern to the church since the tenth century. Popes continued to discipline the belligerent princes and cities to quit the combats, and excommunicated them without hesitation as long as they did not comply with it. The universal superiority of pope had been expressed in the feudal lordship of pope. Since pope Gregory VII began to show the idea of feudal lordship of pope, the popes in the thirteenth century contracted feudal relations with secular powers, and were eager to transform the lands of kingdoms as fiefs. Accordingly, in order to maintain the feudal lordship of pope, they frequently excommunicated the opponents obstructing those relationships against papal power. Judging from the above mentioned, it can be said that the universal superioity of pope was empowered through the effort of recovering the social peace, and the construction of the feudal lordship of pope. The universal church and popes considered the western European world as the universal kingdom of pope and executed universal superiority of pope in this kingdom. In the way excommunication was one of the powerful and efficient arms for pope to realize the desire of universal superiority. (Wonkwang University / ccchang@wku.ac.kr)

The Virgin Mary Reading and Women Reading: the Annunciation and Medieval Women's Book Culture Hye-Min Lee The Annunciation has been the most important and the most frequently quoted image when historians carry out research on the history of medieval women's reading. However, precedent studies have concentrated on the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. The iconography of the Annunciation before the 13th century has been neglected by specialists of the history of books and reading. Therefore, the aim of this research is to extend chronologically the scope of the inquiry and to replace the iconography of the Annunciation, by comparing it with other visual and literary sources. in historical, social and cultural contexts. This study sets out from our conviction that visual sources can offer a lot of precious information on the book culture of medieval women. This study especially makes analysis of an iconographic element such as the book and its relationship with the Virgin. It reveals at least three important historical moments when important iconographic transformations intervened in the Annunciation scene. First, the book became an attribute of the Virgin in the ninth-century, the period following the 'Carolingian Renaissance'. At that time, it is possible that the legible 'caroline minuscule' allowed a few of aristocratic men and women to acquire Latin literacy, though limited in its range, for reading a Psalter. Second, the iconography of the Virgin holding a codex has largely increased between the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries. This period is characterized by the growth of vernacular literacy. The noble women are major audience and readers of vernacular literatures. They are also important commissioners of pious works. However, the 'closed' book of the Virgin in the Annunciation seems to symbolize the limit of women's access to theological knowledge. Finally, the most drastic transformation occurs from the mid-fourteenth century. The scene of the Virgin's reading is introduced in the Annunciation. Moreover, by the fifteenth-century, the background setting is layed in daily life. The renovation begins mainly in Sienna and in Flemish cities which were economic and artistic centers. At that time, the noble and the bourgeois women played an active role in the private devotion and they were also important clients of the book market who purchased Psalters and Books of Hours. To sum up, the iconographic transformation of the Annunciation was closely related to the historical, social and cultural contexts. However, it was not merely a reflection of the real world. It was rather an ideologically constructed medium. The reading Virgin became an ideal model for medieval women readers, especially when the female literacy and the number of women book owners have relatively increased. (Yonsei University / zephyrum@dreamwiz.com)

The Contemporary Responses of the Cities to the Black Death Heung-Sik Park This study examines many measures and relevant policies of cities to overcome the Black Death as well as the effects of cities’ measures on poor people. European cities responded to the plague diversely. They blocked movement from the infected region, isolated the patient from city dwellers, and arranged special workers exclusively responsible for it to provide them with foods and medicines. Such measures were expanded across Europe, quarantine was generalized in the mid-15th century and public health system were permanent, which showed considerable improvement in the response system. Although it failed to find out the cause and the expansion reason scientifically, cities could be alive and well due to the urban government’s efficient response measures. The poor were marginalized during the process of overcoming the Black Death by urban government, and as a legal way, the control about citizens was intensified as well. Based on the assumption that the poor or wanderer had high percentage of carrying the infectious disease in cities, they were prevented from entering cities and movement of areas in the cities was also controlled. The polarization of the urban society was more set in due to the plague, and the poor were pushed away from cities. The repeated Black Death changed cities into more closed and exclusive space. (Seoul National University / hspark@snu.ac.kr)

The Lower Class in the Urban Revolts in the Late Middle Ages Yong-Jin Park The revolts in the late medieval period start as a violent expression of the complaints base on the fear and the social unrest. On the first stage, the upper and mid-bourgeoisie led it. As the geographical and social range expands, the violence increases and the lower class, or ‘menu people’, largely participates in the revolt. The term “lower class” was no social meaning, but usually used to depict the people who act violently and make the community unstable. It is paradoxical that people rise up to escape from the fear and the social unrest, but their uprising causes the violence and the instability in turn. The fear and the social unrest shared among the people cannot be resolved by the revolts and the violence. It is the sacred obligation of the king to keep the society in peace. The king represents the peace, the order, the mercy, the tolerance, and so on. The king is the only one who can solve the problem of the social unrest. So the revolts always conclude in the reinforcement of the royal authority. In a word, the revolts which start with the memory of the fear and the social unrest, eventually end up sharing the memory of the peace and the order. (Seoul National University / parktoan@snu.ac.kr)

본 논문은 무엇보다도 파리를 무대로 한 세 가지 도시반란 사이의 공통점, 즉 파리에서 멀지 않은 왕국의 좋은 도시들과의 관계를 강조한 것이다. 이러한 도시들은 저항운동이 세운 정치적 목표를 성취하려는 목적에서 자체의 전략적 고려에서 선택된 것이다. 그러나 내 생각에는 그 배후에는 도시들 사이의 결합을 가져올 수 있는 연대의식이 존재했을 것으로 생각된다. 또한 강이라는 도시의 존재 자체가 적어도 왕국의 북부 지방에서는 반란자들에게 도덕적 지지대 역할을 했던 것으로 보인다. 이러한 현상의 원인은 차후 나의 분석 대상이 될 것이다. 그리고 플랑드르 지방의 여러 도시들에서 일어난 민중운동에서 강이 차지하는 역할에 대해 깊이 있는 연구가 필요하다. 게다가 마이예의 반란에 직면한 왕권의 대응 역시 고려의 대상이다. 중세 말 프랑스 북부에서 나타난 도시반란의 조직(네트워크)은 봉건제의 위기의 시대를 특징짓는 여러 민중 봉기들 중에서 매우 특별한 지위를 갖는 것으로 생각된다. 왕국의 개혁에 대한 점증하는 요구 속에서 세금과 관련된 문제들이 상당한 중요성을 가지고 있었다는 사실은 좋은 증거이다. 물론 이러한 의문이 마이예의 반란에서 뚜렷이 문제가 되지는 않았다. 역사적 맥락에서 왕국의 통치가 삼부회를 개최할 수밖에 없는 상황에 처해 있었다는 사실은 정치적, 행정적, 법률적 제도의 역사에서 중요한 의미를 갖는다. 각 신분의 대표들은 삼부회가 결정을 하지는 못하고 조언의 역할밖에 하지 못함을 알고 있었다. 그러나 재정에 관한 한 좋은 도시가 이해관계를 공유한 공동체였기 때문에 이들의 동의가 절대적으로 필요했다. 이들의 동의가 없다면 징세가 이루어질 희망은 없었다. 이러한 요소들은 베르나르 슈발리에(Bernard Chevalier)가 행한 좋은 도시에 대한 연구에서 이미 밝혀졌다. 마찬가지로 내가 보기에 프랑스 북부로부터 플랑드르로 퍼져있는 상업망도 고려해야 한다. 이러한 망은 당시에 더욱 강화되었을 것이며 결국 도시 반란의 보이지 않는 네트워크로 작용했을 것이다. 사실 장 파비에(Jean Favier)의 연구가 잘 보여주고 있듯이, 대규모 직물상에 국한되지 않고, 이러한 교환은 이곳저곳에서 규칙적으로 일상생활에 필요한 물품을 획득하는 데에 이용되었을 것이고 이러한 시장 역시 관계되어 있을 것이다. (Senshu University / jacques3@sj9.so-net.ne.jp)

Perpetual Chantries and the Development of Queens' College, Cambridge in 15th and 16th Centuries Eun-Jin Choi In medieval European universities, colleges were established as charitable institutions helping poor scholars to carry on studying higher faculty. In the early 14th century and late 15th century, the University of Cambridge achieved a remarkable degree of progress in promoting secular college movement. In the late 15th century, newly founded colleges in Cambridge were growing rapidly while existing ones were also expanding significantly. Colleges during this period began to attract new benefactors by promoting the religious function of the institution as perpetual chantries, which consequently enabled them to a rapid growth during 15th century. All college chapels initially functioned as chantries for founders and their families. To secure steady source of income and to maintain a bigger number of fellows, many colleges began to find new benefactors by offering them funeral services and intercession mass. Queens’ College, Cambridge serves as a vivid example of a college whose members’ engagement in attracting patronages had been particularly active. Although its official foundress was Margaret of Anjou and it had many royal patrons, most support from them had been little more than symbolic gestures. It was therefore necessary for Queens' College to strengthen the chantry function of the college to attract alternative financial resource in order to acquire land, construct college buildings, and provide living expenses for the fellows. After Henry Ⅷ’s Reformation, however, many colleges were no longer possible to function as perpetual chantries. This is because the focus of college activities was shifted to providing educational functions, including lectures and tutorials. Colleges began to accept commoners to make the college economically sustainable, and this move gradually led them to grow as a secular educational institution. (KyungHee University / ejchoi@khu.ac.kr)