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Cultural Approach to Medieval Women focused on the Penitentials Yong-Ku Cha The confessional manuals known as penitentials were very popular until the twelfth century, when they became suppressed and the newly developed system of Church (canon) law filled the need. Their use spread from Ireland to Britain, then to northern France, Italy, Spain and finally to Germany. Twenty-five percent to forty-five percent of the sins listed in extant penitentials are sexual sins, including all forms of non-reproductive sex, oral and anal intercourse, and sex at various banned times. So penitentials can be used as valuable sources in the study of gender history of the early Middle Ages. While the significance of the penitentials as historical evidence was not always appreciated by earlier socio-economic historians, the present study does purpose to investigate the cultural meanings contained in the penitentials. It has focused on the issues concerning women such as divorce, remarriage, practicing magic, concubinage, rape, abortion, contraception and lesbianism. In short, this research sheds a useful light on the new aspects of gender problems: the penitentials play a central role in comprehending everyday life of women in the early middle ages. After this journey through the penitentials, one might speculate that: the penitentials were engaged in the church's strenuous combat against the groups, who had a strong attachment to more diversified, open, and freely expressed sexuality than could be countenanced by the Christian sexual ethics. Furthermore, the many canons of the penitentials, such as sexual abstinence at various banned times and possibilities of divorce/remarriage, indicate that the medieval Church was ‘neither’ anti-sexual ‘nor’ misogyn, as usually suspected. (Chungang University / ygcha@cau.ac.kr)

The issue of whether the reform of Pope Gregory VII was based on traditional canon law has a great significance in defining the nature of Gregorian Reform Movement. Conflictions and variations among the medievalists for the interpretation on the basis of 11th century reform ideas caused diverse understandings on it. It is well known that Pope Gregory VII　especially emphasized the universal status of the Pope. The Papal Primacy could only be accepted when the universality of Papacy is recognized. But the Pseudo-isidorian Decretals or Canon Law collected by Burchard of Worms, which were accented on the rights of bishop and to be greatly influential until the middle of 11th century, did not mention it. However, there were some exceptional cases which were not alluded in those decretal collections. What Pope Gregory stressed on universality based on the ancient provisions of Nichea, Chalcedon universal councils and Gelasius I, Pseudo-iurius laws is quite different from the early decretal collections. Pope Gregory VII strengthened the power of legislation by pope in order to secure the universality of canon law. There has been contradictions and conflictions in dealing with the current issues because legislations of local level were depended on the decision of local councils led by bishops law so far. Pope Gregory VII tried to resolve the matter of discordance in law, establishing a hierarchical system of law by way of subordinating the lower authority law to the higher authority law. Papal supremacy and universality were prerequisite in performing the fullness power (plenitudo potestatis) of pope. In addition, papal jurisdiction and legislative power are substantial elements of plenitudo potestatis. The right of prosecution and ordinarius jurisdictio, which was provided by 『Dictatus Papae』, established a strong basis for pope, as the head of all churches, to be the protector and guardian of people of church. The essential elements that were provided by 『Dictatus Papae』 of Pope Gregory VII were clearly contradictory of previous decretal collections, and some were not even mentioned before. Even if any part was mentioned in them, it did not have significant meaning there, or the intentions of those decretals were different from the perspective of reform movement. From this point of view, 『Dictatus Papae』 of Pope Gregory VII　could be considered to go far away from the traditional canonical conceptions. Nevertheless, it seems that Pope Gregory VII　and Gregorian reformers found the origin of their reformative spirit in the definitions of ancient universal councils and the thoughts of church fathers. Those original sources of canon law was organized by Gregorian reform canonists such as Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida, Anselm of Lucca, Deusdedit, Bernold of Constance in their decretal collections. In that perspective, 『Dictus Papae』 cannot be seen as far different from traditional canon law.

This study aims to illuminate the relation between the king and the parisian bourgeoisie in the late medieval France, especially until the revolts of Etienne Marcel in 1358. From the beginning of the thirteenth century, Paris was the outstanding city in French kingdom from every aspect. The royal palace was the important client for the parisian merchant. The haute bourgeoisie, who supplied the luxury product to the royal palace, aided the king and, in return, was granted the privileges such as imposing the tax on the products transported on the Seine, measuring and weighing the products and etc. So they easily became the royal offices. In 1260 the king granted Paris to be municipality whose leader was the prévôt des marchands. In other cities, the new municipality was governed by the rising merchant who fought against the traditional bourgeoisie. But in Paris, the composition of parisian elite was never changed. The haute bourgeoisie, or parisian elite, who had rented the royal office, prévôt de Paris, governed the municipality and more easily promoted themselves to the services to the king. This favorable relation between the king and the haute bourgeoisie was maintained and even reinforced until 1358. In this context, the revolt of Etienne Marcel, considered as an attempt to control the royal power by the Estate General, was a deviation. After the revolts, the haute bourgeoisie made the municipality more exclusive. For the Capetian kings, Paris was the central place where the royal authority revealed and exercised. The parisian bourgeoisie gave the financial aids and the military services to the king and, especially, the haute bourgeoisie was more loyal to the king than to their citizen. So, for the king, Paris was the 'good city(bonne ville)' and the model that the king wanted to impose to the other cities. Actually the king's desire became true. The characters that the parisian haute bourgeoisie had shown in the thirteenth and fourteenth century, were revealed in other cities a centry later. So Paris was the model city from the aspect of centralization.

Nowadays, the tradition of Western archives originates from documental tradition in the ancient-medieval ages and also succeeds to the legacy of the Roman Law in the aspect of the tradition of law. The tradition of law in the italian medieval age handed down the ancient law to descendent, and took an important role to settle down it as a common law of European civil society. In the same context, the tradition of Archival management of Italy was the legacy of the Roman Law, so the medieval ages was a repeated harden period for Archival Management of modern age. Notary system, which had been developed the system to obtain a public trust on the base of notary's action in documentation, is the very result of such developing process in the medieval Italian age. According to the Justinianus Law, archival management is to keep in the Archive which is sacred place in church with requisite for the perpetual necessity for remember. The medieval ‘Ius Archivi’ is the power of the emperor, the Pope and the people who were delegated by those people. While ‘Fides Publica’ of document was given by the authority from the emperor in the northen Alps, ‘Notarius’ took the charge of 'Fides Publica' in Italy especially after establish of ‘civitates sibi principes’. The role of ‘Notarius’ is only on the level of the customer's demands in the universities in the medieval age. But documents which issued plural original authenticated such as degree or those relating certificate used to keep with other documents altogether not to return. Archival management by ‘Notarius’ was not different to between church and lineage. In the case of merchant document, however, the guild consisted of them took an important part of participation into governmental power so they use by themselves the ‘scrivano’ who have a capability in the notary.

This article deals with the secular collegiate movement at Oxford and Cambridge Universities in the fifteenth century. There are many factors that generated the movement. After the eruption of Wycliffite heresy, the church hierarchy felt a need to reinforce the orthodoxy that led to establish colleges with a purpose to combat heresy. The movement was made possible to solve the lack of sufficient educated clerks and parish clergy. The shift in the balance of patronage from the pope to the king caused the collegiate movement by the crown and the prelates. The need for students who sought careers was another factor for the foundation, and finally the chantry function of colleges to pray for their founders and patrons could be considered a private motivation for the foundation. For the founders, colleges were an ideal place to put their awareness into practice, and they did best to set up statutes which would be as specific as possible to ensure the continuity of the college in accordance with their founding purposes. It may be obvious that most founders intended the clergy, once educated, to assume a pastoral role in their parochial churches. Regardless of the realization of the founders' ideals in individual institutions, the desire, enthusiasm and contribution of the 'pious founders' for the church to be restored as a spiritual authority by well-trained clergy was something with real and significant consequences. The secular collegiate movement had progressed and expanded its shape and range during the fifteenth century as the colleges gradually took over the role of the universities in training and supporting scholars by providing several new mechanisms; especially college lectureships and the administrative autonomy of colleges, both of which contributed to the transformation of Oxford and Cambridge into college-based universities. It is no exaggeration to say that in the fifteenth century Oxbridge played a crucial role in providing substantial reform ideas and played their part in an important gradual reform movement whose ultimate goal was to reform church and society in late medieval England through education.

In this article, I analyzed Eriugena’s understanding of return, which culminates in deification with and in God. Metaphysical, cosmological, and anthropological aspects of Eriugena’s theology well demonstrate the pattern of return. Eriugena’s own definition of theology, just as poetry, portrays a broad dimension of procession and return. Multiple aspects of return are portrayed in Eriugena’s unique use of language and terminologies like analytica and harmonia. Eriugena divides the return into two stages, general and special returns. In spite of a certain ambiguity, general return consists of five stages as highlighted in the fivefold division of nature. Special return is another perspective to the return in general. The sevenfold special return is composed of two sub-stages, the fourfold general return reserved for all humanity and the threefold special return reserved only for the elect. They reflect manifold aspects of Eriugena’s theology deeply alluding to the theology of the Fathers. Special return, furthermore, is well demonstrated in the term deification. Deification, the final stage ascent of every natura, is completed in and with God. Relying upon the term theosis of Dionysius and Maximus, John articulated deification within a theological framework of procession and return. John’s two major writings, Periphyseon and Expositiones, succinctly dramatize multiple dimensions of deification. While Eriugena’s interpretation of double returns and deification indicate the conceptual aspects of return, Eriugena’s unique understanding of the Scriptures demonstrates Eriugena as an exegete. Eriugena’s exegetical work so permeates his theology that McGinn labels the Periphyseon a biblical commentary. Eriugena’s specific terms like symbols, signs, and parabolic transition, nicely portray the foundation of allegorical and spiritual interpretations. Among Eriugena’s numerous illustrations of Scriptural passages, I examined one case, the paradise narrative. This story is profoundly related to the two stages of return, general return and special return. The Paradise story stands at the center of the Periphyseon. There are two categories of trees, the tree of knowledge and the Tree of the Life. Eriugena also distinguishes the return to Paradise and the return to the Tree of Life. While the return to Paradise and tasting of all trees there signify the general return of humanity, the return to the Tree of Life represents the special return only reserved for the elect. The parable of the ten virgins is the best poetic and dramatic illustration for the double return. This parable also contains two sets of returns, general and special.

중세 말 제노바 상인 가문의 결속력과 네트워크 시스템: 로멜리니 가문의 사례 요코 가메나가 안자이 본 논문은 제노바 상인들이 어떠한 사회적 유대관계와 조직을 가지고 상업 활동을 전개했는지를 분석한다. 논문의 궁극적인 목적은 일반적으로 알려진 제노바 상인들의 “개인주의”가 어느 정도는 과장되어 있다는 사실을 밝히고 이를 일정 정도 수정하는 것이다. 즉 기존의 연구들은 제노바 상인들의 개인주의적 사업 성향을 지나치게 강조했는데 본 논문은 이러한 인식을 바로 잡고자 한다. 본 논문은 롬바르디아 지방 출신의 귀족 상인가문이었던 로멜리니(Lomellini) 가문의 사례를 통해서 상인 가문의 결속력과 네트워크 시스템을 상세하게 묘사한다. 주로 활용한 사료는 공증인 줄리아노 카넬라(Giuliano Canella)가 1408년에서 1421년 사이 작성한 계약서이며, 이 문서에 자주 등장하는 나폴레오네 로멜리니의 아들들이 중요 분석대상이다. 나폴레오네의 아들들은 카넬라가 작성한 계약서에 35회 등장한다. 논문은 35개의 계약서를 분석함으로써 상인간의 결속력과 네트워크 시스템의 특징을 찾아낸다. 나폴레오네의 아들들은 다른 상인가문(살바고 가문 Salvago, 피에스키 가문 Fieschi, 타리고 가문 Tarigo)의 형제들과도 밀접한 상업 관계를 유지하고 있었다. 특히 타리고 가문과의 유대 관계는 긴밀했다. 그 중 나폴레오네의 딸 지네브라(Ginevra)의 남편이었던 페레그리노 타리고(Peregrino Lomellini)는 중요한 사업 동료일 뿐만 아니라 집안 분쟁에 중재자 역할을 하기도 했다. 로멜리니 형제들은 페라, 로도스, 키오스, 파마구스타, 피사, 시칠리아 섬 등지에서 상업 활동을 했고, 이곳에서의 상거래를 위해 다양한 종류의 대리인 계약을 맺었다. 형제들뿐만 아니라 다양한 사람들이 로멜리니 형제들의 대리인 역할을 수행했으며, 공증인 줄리아노 또한 대리인중 한명이었다. 하지만 대리인 선택에서 일차적인 고려는 형제들이었고, 나폴레오네의 아들들의 경우도 예외는 아니었다. 나폴레오네의 아들들 사이의 결속력을 분석해서 필자가 얻은 결론은 사업에서 형제간의 유대와 결속이 매우 중요했고 형제가 제일의 사업상의 동료였다는 것이다. 당시의 사업 관행에서 상사를 조직하는 기본 단위는 형제나 부모와 자식을 포함하는 가족이었다. 제노바 상인들의 상업 활동과 영역이 확대되면서 확장된 의미의 가족 구성원들이나 좀 더 멀게는 제노바 출신이라는 요소 또한 믿을만한 사업상의 동료를 선택하는데 있어서 우선적인 고려사항이었던 것이다. (일본 학습원대학 부교수 / Yoko.Kamenaga@gakushuin.ac.jp)

15세기 콘스탄츠 공의회 및 바젤 공의회와 인문주의자의 지적 네트워크 타카시 지노 본고는 15세기 교회 개혁을 위해 개최된 콘스탄츠 공의회(1414-18) 및 바젤 공의회(1431-1449)가 당시 인문주의자들에게 고전 사본의 발굴 및 유통을 위한 중요한 계기를 제공하였음을 밝히고 있다. 이들 공의회에 참석한 이탈리아 출신의 인문주의자들이 인적 네트워크를 활용하여 인근의 저명한 교회 및 수도원의 도서관에 소장되어 있던 그리스-로마 시대의 작품들에 대한 필사본들을 복사하거나 입수함으로써 알프스 이북 지역, 특히 독일에 인문주의적 이념을 확산시키는데 크게 기여하였다. 필자는 콘스탄츠 공의회에 참석한 인문주의자들, 특히 포지오 브라치올리니의 활약에 주목하였다. 브라치올리는 프랑스 인문주의자들과의 서신 교환 등의 인적 네트워크를 통해 획득한 정보를 활용하여 클뤼니 수도원에 소장되어 있던 키케로의 <<웅변론>>을 비롯하여 퀸틸리아누스의 <<교육론>> 등의 고전 사본을 발견함으로써 인문주의의 확산에 크게 기여하였다. 또한 바젤공의회에서는 이탈리아의 인문주의자 안브로지오 트라베르사리, 니콜라스 쿠자누스 및 에네아 피콜로미니 등이 고전의 사본 발견에 주력하였다. 특히 에네아 피콜로미니는 독일의 군주 프리드리히 3세 궁정에서 오랫동안 봉사하면서 <<게르마니아>> 등의 라틴어 저작을 집필하였을 뿐만 아니라 인문주의 교육을 전파함으로써 독일에 인문주의 이념을 확산시키는데 매우 중요한 역할을 담당하였다. 한편 공의회가 개최되는 동안 콘스탄츠 및 바젤 이들 도시에서는 고전 사본을 매매하는 시장이 형성됨으로써 인문주의 이념이 보다 널리 확산되었다. 요컨대 당시 유럽의 종교적 현안을 해결하기 위해 개최된 콘스탄츠 공의회 및 바젤 공의회는 특히 알프스 이북에 인문주의의 이념과 교육을 확산시키는데 좋은 기회를 제공하였던 것이다. (일본 동경대학교 교수 / jinno@fusehime.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp)