Earticle

The culture of early iron age in Korean Peninsula was originated from Sejukri - Yeonhwabo Culture influenced from the ironware of Yen Dynasty. And Southwestern region has been the center of discussion regarding the regarding the introduction of early iron culture in the South region. Southwestern region's relics of early iron age are found in Guem-gang Basin region, Mahan region and other near regions. However, this study researches the relics by classifying as Guem-gang Basin region including Asan Bay and Mangyeong-gang Basin region. The result shows that, in Guem-gang Basin region, Stone Stack and Wooden Coffin Tomb is the major type of the tomb and iron hatchets and iron chisels or iron hatchets and iron spears are frequently associated. For earthenwares, black burnished potteries and clay-stripe potteries are associated, but less frequently found as grave goods. On the other hands, various bronzewares including slender bronze daggers, bronze dagger handles, fine-crafted bronze mirrors, bronze dagger axes, bronze spears and bronze chisels have been found frequently as grave goods. In Mangyeong-gang Basin region, Pit-Burial and Wooden Coffin Tomb is found to be the major type of tomb and various ironwares including iron hatchets, iron chisels, iron spears, iron knives with/without roundish ornaments on handles, and iron arrow tips are excavated as single buried items more frequently than in Guem-gang Basin region. Various earthwares including black burnished potteries, round type and triangle type clay-stripe potteries, combination type jars with horn-shaped handles, jars and bowls with attached stands are excavated as associated grave goods in higher quantities. However, a little bronze grave goods are found in this region. Such results concludes that these two regions show differences in the main type of tomb and the characteristics of grave goods. Clay-stripe Pottery Culture had entered to Guem-gang Basin region, developed along with the bronze culture and distributed to Mangyeong-gang Basin region. The time of introduction of Clay-stripe Pottery Culture in Mangyeong-gang is estimated to be around the 3rd Century BC through the relics in Jungin-dong, Junhwasan-dong and Yeoui-dong in Jeonju. More various types of ironware are excavated in Mangyeong-gang Basin region than Guem-gang Basin region so that it is assumed that different routs were formed between these two areas and Northwestern region in the peninsula. And it is interpreted that after the entrance of Clay-stripe Pottery, Mangyeong-gang Basin region had gradually become more powerful and established own trading networks and, later, made the independent connection with Northwestern area. The attempt to comprehend the change trend of iron culture has been made in this study through the research on the cast iron hatchets showing the higher quantity than any other iron artifacts. However, the type change of iron hatchet is failed to be drawn. This result refers that various types of the hatchets are found in Southwestern region due to the import from Northwestern region having the extensive variety of hatchets as found in the entire Korean Peninsula.

The relations between Goguryeo and the Hyeondo-gun(玄菟郡) are the one of the important issue of the proper Goguryeo History. This article is about the Chackguru(幘溝漊) which the Hyeondo-gun installed for control of Goguryo. It had existed before and after Jumong founded Goguryeo. Existing studies stressed on installation and abolition of it. Various views about it’s establishment time was presented from B.C. 75 to the Goguryeo’s sixth king, Taejo, so did abolition time. But it was established as Hyeondo-gun was moved in B.C. 75, and was abolished as King Yuri occupied Goguryeo-hyeon(高句麗縣) in Hyeondo-gun. It was established with the aim of controling Goguryeo people and of boundary trade.

This paper analyses the articles on Baekje in Nihonshoki according to the period of time and subject field. Also, the paper reviews contents of such articles within historical development of Baekje. Moreover, Nihonshoki is comparatively analyzed with the Baekjebonki of Samguksagi to discover a historical value of Nihonshoki in connection with studies on history of Baekje. With analysis of articles on Baekje in Nihonshoki, this paper covers the both reign of King Seong and King Euija in the perspective of period of time, and the diplomacy in the perspective of subject field. The contents on Baekje in Nihonshoki are analyzed over the stage in the development of Baekje. The articles of Hansung period are primarily diplomatic affairs and royal family affairs. Also, the initial diplomatic relation between Baekje and Wae and political situation within royal court of Baekje can be learned in detail through analyzing articles on diplomacy and royal family during the reign of King Geunchogo and King Asin. The articles on Korean peninsula in Nihonshoki are mainly centered in Woongjin period. From the articles on the Four Towns of the Country Yimna and cession of Kimun·Daesa during the reign of King Muryeong and King Seoung implies that Baekje fully restored both its internal and external power after transferring its capital city to Woongjin. The articles on Sabi period are mainly about the reign of King Seong after transferring the capital city to Sabi and early age of King Euija, and those articles shows that Baekje tried to reinforce royal authority and taken an offensive actions against Goguryo and Silla by taking advantage of close diplomatic tie between Baekje and Wae. Also, the close relation between Baekje Restoration Forces and Wae’s material support and military aid to Baekje Restoration Forces is well described in articles after the fall of Baekje. In comparative analysis between Nihonshoki and Baekjebonki of Samguksagi, 7 historical events are reviewed out of 34 which are appeared on both of them, in the perspective of royal family, diplomacy and military. With comparative analysis, three characteristics of articles can be addressed. Firstly, the articles of Nihonshoki including Accession of King Jinsa and King Asin, Death of King Seong at the battlefield, Interception of diplomatic document, Battle of Doksan Castle and Baekje Restoration Movement supplement to Baekjebonki of Samguksagi. Secondly, the story about hostage-taken Crown Prince Jeonji is well portrayed in Nihonshoki while story about his accession is well described in Baekjebonki of Samguksagi so that two history books are complementary. Similarly, the accession of King Dongseong and Muryeong is detailed in Nihonshoki while the assassination of King Dongseong is more detailed in Baekjebonki of Samguksagi so that two history books are complementary. Thirdly, the King Muryeong is recorded as a son of King Dongseong in Baekjebonki of Samguksagi but it is more verisimilitude that King Muryeong and King Dongseong are a brother of half-blood. In this sense, the articles of Nihonshoki correct an error in Baekjebonki of Samguksagi. Lastly, it is advisable to conduct comparative analysis between two history books to discover the historical value of Nihonshoki in connection with studies on history of Baekje.

Jeonju was invaded or fallen by Japanese raiders(Wako) four times in the 2nd, 4th, 9th, and 14th year of King Woo. Jeonju suffered not only human life damage but also the fall of Jeonju Castle and burning of government offices. Jeonju was fallen by Japanese raiders for the first time in the 2nd year of King Woo. Apart from the disorder in Japan at that time, the reason why Japanese raiders invaded Jeonju at that time is considered highly likely to be a revenge for their defeat in Hongsan battle. However, after obtaining geographical information through the invasion in the 2nd year of King Woo, Japanese raiders included Jeonju in their range of invasion and this is regarded to be the reason why Jeonju was continuously invaded until the 14th year of King Woo. Whereas the invasions in the 2nd, 4th, and 14th year of King Woo were general forms of invasions in which all or part of Japanese raiders that invaded the west coast came through the plain area to fall Jeonju, the invasion in the 9th year of King Woo is different in that Japanese raiders that invaded the east coast tried to invade Jeonju after passing through the inland area. As for the invasion in the 9th year of King Woo, it is judged that the Japanese raiders could not but select entering into the inland area of Goryeo because they could neither live on the seas nor go to Japan because Goryeo built ships to directly hit Japanese raiders while making diplomatic efforts to have the Japanese government prevent Japanese raiders' invasions. Of course, a root cause of the relatively passive responses of Goryeo to Japanese raiders' invasions is Goryeo's fear of the movements of northern powers as can be seen from the cases of the Jeongryowui issue in the 2nd year of King Woo and the Yodong(Liaodong) conquest in the 14th year. At that time, two powers named North Yuan and Ming were sharply opposing against each other in the northern region and it could directly affect the security of Goryeo. Therefore, Goryeo could not but place the first priority of vigilance on the movements of northen powers rather than the problem of Japanese raiders.

Currently, it is informed that only approximately 100 ancient documents have been handed down and most of them are preserved documents by the families around the country. Reason why these ancient documents are well preserved which are indispensable to study the history and culture at the traditional period is that members in each family valued and made effort to preserve them as they were. But, there are almost no related studies because our academic world didn’t pay attention to these ancient documents. In this study, the case study was tried targeting Buan Kim Family who have been living for generations in Wooban-dong, Buan-gun, Jeolla-do. Person who has arranged the ancient documents which have been handed down to Buan Kim Family is Kim Deukmun(1732~1767). He arranged all the letters which have been handed down to his family and identified who sent and received individually and after recording these he put all these letters together and kept them in the envelopes. Through these works, he discovered Kyung-Hwa-Sa-Jok in Hanyang who have exchanged with his ancestors and he tried to restore the social network by contacting them. Additionally, he discovered the lands and slaves which he couldn’t arrange and figure out, made the documents to receive the notarization again and received the notarization and caught and returned escaped slaves. But unfortunately, he encountered lawsuits because he beat the slaves to death in this process. Reason why Kim Deukmun arranged the ancient documents was he was adopted. After his step-father dies, there was no one who told his property conditions or social network with Kyung-Hwa-Sa-Jok at all. Therefore, he couldn’t help figuring out his lands and slaves through handed down documents in his family after adoption and restoring the social network with Kyung-Hwa-Sa-Jok at Hanyang. Even though Kim Deukmun barely restored the social network, unfortunately he died right away and his efforts turned out to be in vain.

This study is to narrate anecdotes about 『Bangyesurok(磻溪隨錄)』written by Yu Hyoung-won following historical context and to examine the publication process and meaning of it as, in spite of Namin(南人)’s book about administration, it was able to be published by receiving government’s support in the king Young-jo(英祖), the late Joseon Dynasty. It spread over the nation due to immediate family including his son, Yu Ha and the academic fellows like Bae Sang-yu. It greatly influenced Namin scholars who read it to conceive their own reformation ideology. As it is a book about administration to suggest a specific reform plan that can realize the confucian ideal politics, Noron also formed public opinion to recognize and accept its value at government policy even though they were hostile political power toward Namin. Finally it was published with government support. The publication, however, was not just to publicate it, but to become a part of the Tangpyoung politics that the king Young-jo had pushed ahead with. The proposal was developed that it be published for the reference of government administration while Tangpyoung political situation had been made up by the king Young-jo. The idea of Yu Hyoung-won could be shared and spreaded in Noron in an effort of Hong Gye- hee who belonged to Noron.

This study introduces Hong-Jae diary from 1866 to 1911 written by Ki Haeng-hyeon living in Buan-gun, Jeolla-do and investigates the economic conditions there on the basis of this diary. Hongjae diary is composed of 7 books: the first book is named ‘Dohaejae diaryi’, and the rest is called as‘ Hongjae diary’. We can understand the image of Buan area in the late 19th century because there are not only Ki and his family’s daily lives but also rumours about Buan and the surrounding area in the Diary. For example, we can know specifically about the market price of grain in the area of Buan through the price of rice recorded steadily in Diary, and also the reality of economic state there from the contents of the Diary about several kinds of the tax imposed on farmers. From 1891 to February 1894, when Donghak Peasant Revolution occurred, the price of rice in the area of Buan continued to rise. The farmers’livelihood was on the rocks because the price rose even in harvest time. Meanwhile, the Joseon government did not take any proper actions but increase taxes, and then the farmers in Honam region started to agitate.

Korean Catholicism was considered as heretical religion and persecuted several times until the time of Enlightenment after its introduction(1784) to Korea. However, after the Open-Port resistance to the West was gradually weakened and the West became the model of a new era. Modernization was the greatest challenge of our nation during Enlightenment, and education was one of the basic methods of modernization. The government was in a hurry in introducing modern education to nation, especially Protestants doing very active educational affairs. Catholicism facing the challenges of the nation promoted national movements, including educational activities. The main educational activity of Catholicism was the operation of Gong-so schools. Korean Catholic educational activities were weak in terms of the size and the number, compared to Protestants but Gong-so school movement was the center of Catholic education. Especially, Jeolla province had the largest number of Christians in the country during the Enlightenment so it had many missionaries sent from the Korean Catholic. From the beginning of Catholicism, faithful Catholic towns were formed in Jeolla province and Gong-so was established by Catholic believers who had escaped from Catholic persecution. During the period of Catholic persecution, from Seoul and Gyeong-gi province, through the Chung-cheong, Catholic believers came down to Go-san, Ik-san, Jin-an, Jeon-ju, Keum-gu, the mountainous region of Sun-chang, Tae-in, Jang-su in Jeolla province and settled there. Jeolla province had Catholic believers more than 20% in the nation during the time of Enlightenment and the number of Gong-so schools and the student in them was the largest in the nation. Baudounet, missionary, began to operate the four Gong-so schools in Jin-an, Go-san region and elsewhere in 1889. During the time of Enlightenment the number of Gong-so schools was steadily rising. The number of Catholic believers and Gong-so also increased. Gong-so schools were 10% in average compared to the number of Gong-so, students maintained in average by 8% compared to the devotees. The share of Gong-so schools in Jeolla province was 26.8% in the nation and the students in them accounted for 14.7%. During Patriotic Enlightenment period after the Eul-sa treaty signed in 1905, many schools were built across the nation on the purpose of cultivating student's capability and regaining sovereignty. The Residency-General published many educational laws such as Elementary School Act and Private School Act with the intention of controlling and oppressing national education and making the foundation of colonial education. Catholicism in Jeolla province received permissions, influenced by the policies of the Residency-General and ran Go-san Doe-jae Tai-geuk Gye-myeong School, Ik-san Na-ba-wi Gye-myeong School, Keum-gu Su-ryu In-myeong School, Jin-an Eo-eun-dong Yeong-sin School. Among of the schools, the Tai-geuk Gye-myeong School also installed the institute teaching measurement that was a very important skill at the time. But the Catholic Gong-so schools could not maintain the constant number of students. There were many cases in which Gong-so schools came into being temporarily and then disappeared. Student's number in the schools was very fluctuating. One reason why Catholic modern educational movement and activities didn't receive much attention from our history was that they were too weak. Another reason is that most of Catholic Gong-so schools didn't receive the permissions from the Residency-General in the time of Enlightenment and haven’t been continued today.

While the penetration into China by powerhouses such as U.K. and the U.S. following implementation of open-door policy of the Chinese government mostly aimed at economic and commercial benefits, Russia was different in that it aimed for territorial takeover from the start under the national policy of “Look East”. As Russia got more ambitious with such a goal of taking over the Northeastern region where Manchu tribe was born, the sense of crisis within China got intensified, and the government struggled to come up with an appropriate measures to maintain its rule over the region. Thus the first response by the Qing Dynasty was to facilitate development of the Northeastern region by implementing the policy to move residents so that they can build up the community, which will be the foothold for protecting advantages and ruling in the region. After force-opening doors major areas by pressuring Qing Dynasty, attention of countries like U.K. and the U.S. naturally shifted towards outside of China, and the countries decided to engage themselves in the tug of war in the Northeastern region. When Japan later joins up, the region emerged as the core of international order. Such a chaotic situation was actually a good opportunity for China, with Russia intending to stop large countries from penetrating the Northeastern region as well as the alliance of U.K., the U.S. and Japan against Russia. That was because China started to expect that it may be able to maintain its ruling over the region by balancing among all the powers simply by opening the door of the region first. Thus the door-opening of the region influenced by political and economic situations of China made direct and great impact on the development and changes of the politics and economy as well as social and cultural aspects of the Northeastern region. In terms of economy, development of commerce and modernization of international trading played a pivotal role in transforming the traditional economy into modern one. Also there are many positive influences including but not limited to increase of tax revenue, accelerated urbanization, and modernization of culture and education.

After founding the new China (People’s Republic of China), Mao Zedong attempted to gradually cultivate the new intellectual class fit for the Communist China by purging the traditionally educated bourgeois class or by transforming their (bourgeois) world-view into proletarian ideology. To achieve this goal, Mao initiated (the first wave of) educational reforms. In those days, Mao was a passionate education reformer; therefore, his influence on the education reforms was monumental. This study sought to examine the real reason why Mao initiated education reforms by scrutinizing his perception of education. Furthermore, this study attempted to understand the relationship between Mao’s education reforms and the intellectual class at that time. This study revealed that Mao used the education reforms that focused on the class struggle to replace bourgeois intellectuals with proletarian intellectuals by removing the bourgeois class. Although Mao and the Chinese Communist Party originally established the communist regime in union with bourgeois intellectuals, Mao’s such violent attack on bourgeois after establishing the new China was driven by his mistrust and resentment of the bourgeois class. In summary, Mao's education reforms with the focus on the class struggle were used as means to purge bourgeois intellectuals or transform their world-view and to foster the new form of proletarian intellectuals as well as to present the future directions of the Communist China’s intellectuals.

Korea and Japan in the late modern age is a state authority external to the country as the exclusive bargaining rights for foreign nationals or foreigners overseas voyage was the era of seclusion was not allowed to come into the country together. Waeguan(倭館) in Chosun, Dejima(出島) in Nagasaki, Chinese town(唐人屋敷) was exceptional location. Choryang Waegwan(草梁倭館) in Chosun such as interpreters, traders routinely Tsushima in contact with a number of events took place while. Often happens in the case is theft, robbery, assault(打擲), smuggling(潛商), unauthorized escape(闌出), friction was a problem with the smuggling funds(倭債). Prostitution(交奸) are Tsushima men to stay in Waegwan(倭館) and Chosun women refers to sexual contact, Chosun government was looking into prostitution severely punished as a criminal act. Prostitution was a political event intended to prevent a diplomatic dispute with room for improvement in Japan. Chosun women into prostitution problem eventually suffered a pole can be seen was a victim of in late modern times diplomacy. Dejima(出島), says the Dutch East India Company trading musoeul was in Nagasaki. When the Dutch were staying in Nagasaki could not be the rule, personal contact with the Japanese, was a special area at any time if they want to enjoy the nightlife was called the Youzyo(遊女). During the Edo period in Japan is the legalization of prostitution was socially acceptable to enjoy the nightlife in this brothel formed in each city. However, anyone who was not a place to enjoy unlimited Shogunate had legalized prostitution. In the case of Edo, Osaka, Kyoto, geographically isolated from the place called of Yuzyoya(遊女屋), yuzyo only could belong to yuzyoya sales. But there can be a business yuzyo Nagasaki went out at any time if there is a call from Dejima yuzyoya or Chinatown. And prostitution case in Waegwan, acts of yunyeo of Dejima is the phenomenon of prostitution in foreign partner is the same. But, the Chosun women caused a prostitution case was put to the polarized, who was Dejima in Nagasaki yuzyo access to professionals who can live luxuriously in exotic trinkets as angry as a professional who is certified by the shogunate. This difference is a matter of how they define the state power is prostitution, and, ultimately, can be seen as a result of the difference stems from the Chosun and shogunate to government ideology. Edo shogunate was used systematically by the commodification of the female. Moral right or wrong decision is left off, such a positive attitude is ultimately one to think that it is not presented as the difference between the national power in the next period.

鑑眞은 753년에 일본에 건너와서 戒律과 天台教學을 전함으로써 그 이전과는 전혀 다른 새로운 성격의 일본 불교가 출발할 수 있는 계기를 마련하였다. 이 때문에 감진의 渡日은 飛鳥시대의 불교전래에 버금가는 일본불 교사의 대사건이었다고 말할 수 있다. 당시 일본은 당으로부터는 絶域에 해당되었고, 험한 바다 너머에 위치하였기에 지옥의 문이라고까지 인식되 던 곳이었다. 감진은 이미 명망있는 고승이었지만, 12년간의 온갖 고난에도 굴하지 않고 도일의 뜻을 이루었 다. 이 때문에 감진은 왜 도일을 결심했는가에 대한 연구가 일찍부터 이루어져왔다. 본고는 이 문제에 관한 선 행연구의 검토를 주된 목적으로 설정하고, 그 배경과 의의에 대한 필자의 의견을 개진한 것이다. 먼저, 聖徳太子敬慕説은 일본 천태종의 성립 및 전개에 중심축을 이루는 것이지만, 이 연구의 기초사료인 『 東征傳』과 『名記傳』의 기사를 엄밀히 분석해보면 감진의 발언과 일본 승려들의 발언은 서로 엇갈리고 있 어서 감진이 성덕태자를 경모하여 도일에 이르게 되었다고 해석하는 곤란할 것으로 생각되었다. 당의 스파이설은 나라시대의 정치사에 대한 인식의 상위에서 비롯된 것이므로 그 자체는 검토의 대상은 아니 나, 일본 견당사의 傳戒師 요청 경위에 대한 문제의식은 나름대로 일리가 있다고 판단되었으며, 이는 감진 도 일이후의 불교계의 반응과도 관련이 있을 것으로 생각되었다. 이어서, 慧思신앙설은 중국인 학자에 의하여 제기된 것으로, 감진이 혜사의 後身을 쫒아 일본에 건너가게 되 었다는 견해이다. 중국측 입장에서의 시각과 사료의 사용으로 그동안 일본인의 관점에 의해 이루어져온 연구 에 일석을 던졌다는 점에서 주목할 만하다. 그러나 혜사를 너무 강조한 나머지 감진과 혜사, 천태신앙과의 관 계를 명확하게 정리하지 못한 점이 아쉽게 생각된다. 마지막으로, 천태불교포교설은 『名記傳』의 기사를 근거로 감진과 그의 제자들이 천태종을 전하기 위하여 도일하게 되었다는 주장이다. 그러나 감진과 그 일행의 일본에서의 행적을 보면, 천태불교를 포교하기 위한 활동은 거의 보이지 않으므로, 설득력이 약한 것으로 판단되었다. 이처럼, 감진의 도일 이유에 대해서는 아직 정설을 찾기 어렵다. 감진에 관해서는 당시의 다른 고승보다 많은 사료가 남아있기는 하지만 위대한 승려로써의 감진의 이미지에 가려져 그 실상이 잘 보이지 않는 것으로 생각 된다. 따라서 이 문제는 단일시점이나 방법론에서 나아가 다양한 프리즘을 이용하여 스펙트럼을 넓혀서 연구하는 것이 바람직할 것이다.

七五三年、鑑真は渡日し、戒律や天台教学を伝えるなど日本の仏教界に新しい風を吹き込み、これによって 大仏以前とは異なる新しい日本仏教が動き出した。それゆえ鑑真渡日は飛鳥の仏教伝来につぐ日本仏教史上 における大事件といえる。 　当時、日本は唐からは絶域と考えられ、唐人に地獄の門とも認識されていた。 ところが、鑑真は唐地においてすでに名望ある高僧であったにもかかわらず、身の危険を顧みず、渡日を決 心し、十二年間のあらゆる苦難にも挫けず、ついにその志を貫徹したのである。すると、鑑真がなぜ日本へ の渡海を決意したか、その理由を探ることは鑑真個人のみならず日本や中国仏教史の研究にきわめて重要な 問題といわねばならない。本稿では、この問題に関する先行研究を詳しく検討し、鑑真渡日をめぐる背景や その意義について考察した。 　第一、聖徳太子敬慕説は日本天台宗の成立と展開において重要な意味を持つ のだが、基礎史料である『東征傳』と『名記傳』の記事を厳密に分析すると、鑑真と日本僧侶との発言に食 い違いがあり、鑑真が聖徳太子を敬慕して来日に至ったと解することは困難であると考えられる。 　第二、 唐のスパイ説は奈良時代の政治史に対する認識の相違から始まる見解であり、検討の対象ではないが、遣唐 使の伝戒師要請に関する問題提起は一理あるものと考えられる。これは鑑真渡日後の日本における仏教界の 反応とも関連があるように思われる。 　第三、慧思信仰説は中国人研究者によって提起されたもので、鑑真 が慧思の後身を追って日本へ渡ったという見解である。中国側の視覚や史料の引用によって、今まで日本の 観点から行われきた斯界に一石を投じたという点で注目に値する。ただ、慧思を強調したあまり、鑑真と慧 思、天台信仰との関係を明確に整理し得なかったことは惜しまれる。 　第四，天台布教説は『名記傳』の記 事を根拠に鑑真と弟子らが天台仏教を日本に伝えるために渡日したという主張である。しかし、鑑真と弟子 らの日本における行跡をみると、天台仏教を布教するための活動はほとんどなく、説得力は弱いと考えられ る。 　 　以上のように、鑑真渡日の理由については、今だ定説をみていないのが現状である。鑑真につい ては他の高僧に比して多くの史料が残っているものの、偉大な僧侶としてのイメージに囲まれてその実相が よく見えないようである。したがって、この問題は単一視点や方法論より多様なプリズムを用いてスペクト ラムを広げて研究することが望ましい。

본 논문은 현재 미국에서 이루어지고 있는 자국의 역사 교육, 특히 공립 고등학교에서의 역사 교육 현황을 전 반적으로 검토하였다. 미국 고등학교에서의 역사 교육은 특정한 학년에서 이루어지지 않으며 단순히 졸업을 위한 필수과목으로 책정되어 있다. 따라서, 학생들은 11학년에 미국사 수업을 수강하는 것이 일반적이다. 미국은 1994년에 이르러서야 연방정부차원의 역사교육의 기준을 수립하기 시작하였다. 2년에 걸친 진보 보수 양진영의 격렬한 토론 끝에 1996년 ‘전국역사표준(안)’가 제정되었다. 그 후, 각 주(州)들은 이 ‘전국역사표준( 안)’를 바탕으로 그들의 정치적, 역사적 관점에 맞는 표준서를 마련하였다. 하지만 여기서 유념해야 할 것은 각 주 단위에서 자체적으로 제정한 역사교욕을 위한 표준서는 연방정부의 ‘전국역사표준(안)’ 을 따라야 할 의 무는 없다는 점이다. 이는 미국를 하나의 국가로 인식하는 것보다는 50개의 주 (州)로 이루어진 연방국가라는 차원에서 접근한다면 보다 쉬게 이해할 수 있었다. 따라서, 캘리포니아주와 텍사스주의 미국사 교육 표준과 목적들을 비교 해 보는 것은 매우 큰 의미가 있다. 왜 냐하면 캘리포니아의 정치적 성향은 미국내에서 진보적 색체를 강하게 나타내는 대표적인 주(州)인데 반해 텍 사스주는 보수적 성향을 강하게 띄었고 있기 때문이다. 결론적으로, 미국사 교육의 기준과 목적은 비록 ‘전국 역사표준(안’를 바탕으로 하지만 각 주의 정치적 성향에 따라 크게 달라질 수 있다는 점을 이번 연구에서는 확 인 할 수 있었다. 또한 캘리포니아주의 일반 고등학교에서 사용하고 있는 역사교과서의 선택과정을 살펴보았다. 이러한 과정은 주 교육부의 주관하에 굉장히 복잡하고 오랜 시간이 걸리는 행정절차를 거쳐야 했다. 그리고 그 과정은 투명 성과 자율적 참여를 지향하지만, 종교적 혹은 상업적 목적을 가진 이익집단들과 대규모 출판사들의 영향력에 서는 결코 자유로울 수 없다는 점을 알 수 있었다. 마지막으로, 고등학교 미국사 과목은 학생들의 종합졸업성 적에는 당연히 포함되어 있지만, 대학진학을 위한 대학 입학능력시험에는 단순히 선택과목으로 분류되어 있 고 이마저도 상위권 대학이 아니라면 그리 큰 비중을 차지 않고 있는 실정이다. 미국사 교육과 그에 따른 교육 행정, 학습 목적, 자료 선택 그리고 대학 입학과의 관련성은 전적으로 각 주정 부 단위의 자율적 선택에 맞겨져 있다. 하지만, 교육의 최종적 선택 권한은 학생들과 학부모들에게 있다는 사 실을 알 수 있었다.

This paper reviews issues of the overall American history education in the United States with a special emphasis on the education in public high school. In high school, American history is not limited to certain grade level, but it is categorized as a mandatory course for graduation. It is usually taken in eleventh grade. In 1994, the United States federal government began the process of establishing a national standard for history education. After enduring over two years of debate as a result of unequal understanding of history by conservatives and liberals, the revised National Standard for History was finally enacted in 1996. Each state adopted a state-level standard that reflects the national standard. Upon reviewing standards and goals for American history courses that were enacted by California and Texas, it was evident that California’s education was based on more liberal inclination and Texas’s on more conservative. In other words, I was able to confirm that the educational goals of American history courses can vary depending on the political disposition of the state despite a unified national standard. In the case of California, selecting American history textbooks involves a very complex administrative procedure and takes two to three years of duration. It is important to note that although this complex process emphasizes transparency and open participation, lobbying by many interest groups and large publishing companies cannot be ignored. Lastly, high school American history education affects overall high school grades point average (GPA) but does not affect the Standardized Aptitude Test Reasoning (SAT I) score, which is the major college entrance exam. In conclusion, American history related education administration, learning objectives, materials selection, and relevance to college admission that are carried out by the public high schools in the United States are fundamentally left to consistency reflected by the state government and/or the unified autonomy of the states. However, all decision-makings in terms of the education of American history are lastly and fully depended on the students and their parents.