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In this paper, we argue, in support of the revised version on Principle A, that demonstrative binding is possible if one or the other occurrence of the third person is put forth as if it were a demonstrative. We contend that Principle A must be understood as a condition of demonstrative binding in Korean, thereby suggesting that Principle B does not regulate demonstrative binding. Under Higginbotham’s (1992) proposal, whereby demonstratives can stand apart from the disjointness conditions, Principle B functions so as to exclude the possibility of common reference. The central idea of our analysis, however, is that in the case of Korean demonstrative binding, Principle A functions so as to include the possibility of common reference. Even if two elements have the same coindex, one cannot determine that they have the same value without the speaker’s intention. We present evidence from the previous approaches that kare ‘he’ and ku ‘he’ cannot be bound by a quantifier irrespective of domains. However, the previous approaches are undermined by the fact that Principle A restricts demonstrative binding in Korean. The crucial evidence against the previous approaches is based on the observation that the demonstrative ku ‘he’ admits a bound variable reading and that Principle A constrains demonstrative binding through common reference arising from the speaker’s intention. In conclusion, while variable binding and demonstrative variable binding seem to be considered as having the same semantic relations, the latter is not claimed to be subject to Principle B.

This paper aims at revaluing the current code of ecology in O Pioneers!, as one way of responding to a common holistic hope for re-connection between humans and nature. Willa Cather’s ecological imagination in this fiction is drawn to Nebraska’s land founded on mediating the relationship between nature and humans. This text tracks the movement from the wilderness to the natural settlement, and bares the earth to the natural culture. Nebraska evolves towards the fruitfulness of life where Alexander feels the joyous germination in the land. Alexander, faced with a landscape which escapes the marshaling control of human effort, adopts a remarkably coexistent attitude towards the land. She is desirable ecologist, becoming the natural human. Although she brings the culture to the wilderness, she is insistently identified with the natural human. The land, the place, would seem poised to resume its place as a vital natural human concept. Accordingly Nebraska is related with ecologically based interdisciplinary connection with life, bridging the gulf between nature and humans, living in an increasingly interconnected worlds.

This paper aims to re-think and demonstrate black women based on the philosophy of ‘womanism’ in Alice Walker’s third novel, The Color Purple, which helped her to be one of the most popular comtemporary American writers. This novel is composed of a form of a letter in which the heroine, Celie, writes the letter to God. Alice Walker’s ‘womanism’ and the word of ‘womanish’ are originated from the traditional spoken language of Black South Community. It has the concept of universal and humanistic vision, excluding all the categories like race, gender and class. It also pursues to eradicate the distinctions and oppressions from the society. The black woman, Celie lose her identity by mental and physical discrimination within white and male-centered society. This novel shows a constant oppression and persecution of the general black women in the framework of inequality. It suggests the progress of black women’s struggles for their right as a human being against the visible and invisible pressures from the society. In the last part of the novel, Celie finally builds up her own identity through the true friendship with the other black women like Shug, Sofia, and her sister Netti who’ve resisted to the old and traditional concept in white and male-centered society. Walker even presents us with the gradual change of the male heros, Albert and Harpo, who’ve been changed to be out of the typical stereotype as a dominator. In the long run, through these womanish characters’ steady change and growth, Walker strongly claims the significant value of her ‘womanism’ philosophy embracing universality and multinational integration.

This study investigates the different types of head acts and perspectives on request strategies in Korean College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT). The data on speech acts of request were selected from the scripts of listening and speaking items from five years of CSAT (2005-2009). Each test contains 17 items of speech activities: 12 listening items and 5 speaking items. The results show that most test items demonstrate an adequate reflection of head acts and perspectives of request strategies, while several items represent some deficiency in the reflection of some strategies. The deficiency partly comes from the lack of diversity in the frequency of head acts: performatives, hedged performatives, obligation, want statements, strong hints and mild hints. In the perspectives, most items represent ‘hearer oriented’ strategies in most of tests. While some tests focus on ‘speaker oriented’ and ‘speaker and hearer oriented’ strategies, ‘impersonal’ strategies hardly occur for all five years. Most items have equal occurrences between a speaker and a listener in the social situations, but social familarity is different depending on the types of items. This study suggests that test developers should consider various head acts and perspectives in CSAT.

Focusing on the sociolinguistic realization of /aw/-monophthongization in the “Pittsburghese” English, this paper shows that the social meaning of the /aw/-monophthongization in Pittsburghese is related to the awareness of its phonological system, which consists of the ranking relation among the constraints involved in the selection of [ah] as an output form. This argument is based on the phonological analysis of Optimality Theory (McCarthy & Prince 1993, Prince & Smolensky 1993/2004). Further, extending the Optimality Theoretic analysis to the exploration of the mapping between the phonological system of /aw/-monophthongization and its social meaning in Pittsburghese, this paper shows that its mapping is a result of the interaction between the constraints involved in associating the phonological system with regional and social meanings. It is also shown in this paper that in this process, the change of ranking relation among the constraints interacts with the change of people’s awareness of social meaning associated with the /aw/-monophthongization in Pittsburghese.

This paper examines “thought-adventure”, which begins only with sensibility, not the order of the stable ego but of the event of flow. This is an empiricism that enters the zone of discernibility. This empiricism is a transcendental empiricism in contrast to the world of the subject and the object. Therefore, this empiricism knows only events whose being consists of multiplicity. The real empiricist world is a world of exteriority and what is outside our given determinations or identities. Like empiricism, the art-work which operates with indefinities is a pure passionate experience and a process without goal. As Lawrence affirms ‘thought-adventure’ in ‘in-between’, or ‘the fourth dimension’, a novel is a zone to escape from illusion of transcendence. In this zone, the novel is an abstract machine whereby becoming-other is closely related with writing. Becoming in writing is outside of the major language, the minoritarian use of language, for the minority is the becoming of everybody without identification. In this manner, as a symbol, art-work is simulacra, which repeats only difference in itself. Art-speech is a language of an esoteric word and pure symbol which does not know an identity. According to Lawrence, the novel is the highest complex of subtle interrelatedness, inventing new sensations in the old line. From the Deleuzian perspective, literature begins with intensities of affects. Becoming-other, thought-adventure, is an ethical practice accomplished only by thinking in terms of difference and otherness. In short, thought-adventure and transcendental empiricism are a creative process without an end.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of collocation- based English vocabulary instruction on learners’ receptive and productive collocation knowledge acquisition and their attitudes toward collocation- based learning. Thirty 3rd year middle school students participated in the study. They were divided into two groups: the explicit group received direct instruction on target collocations, while the implicit group learned the target collocations indirectly by doing activities such as guessing meaning in context. Data sources consisted of pre- and post- test of collocation knowledge, survey, and in-depth interviews. The results of the study revealed that there was a significant improvement in collocation knowledge in both explicit and implicit collocation-based vocabulary instruction. The improvement of receptive collocation knowledge was especially more noticeable than that of productive collocation knowledge. Another major finding was that explicit instruction was more effective than implicit teaching in productive collocation knowledge acquisition, while there was little significant difference in receptive collocation knowledge acquisition between the groups. Additionally, the learners’ perception on collocation-based instruction was generally positive, and they were relatively well aware of the necessity of collocation learning.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how many and what kinds of utterances pre-sevice English teachers and their students uttered during English classes through the modified method of FLint (Foriegn Language Interaction) analysis. Data sources consisted of five pre-service English teachers’ short versions of English teaching and their lesson plans. They presented for eight or ten minutes to show a little bit of every step of their English classes. Thier English classes were videotaped during their presentation and transcribed for analysis, and analyzed by the FLint Analysis. The results of the study revealed that pre-service English teachers showed questioning the most in their classes, and providing information was the second. Second, the results indicated that students showed showing responses, whether they are individual, or collective ones, the most in their utterances during their Englsih classes. This study suggests that the nature of utterances of teachers and students during their English classes may be very mutual and interactive between teachers and students. Therefore, it is very important for teachers to realize that teachers’ utterances during their classes are very powerful in attracting students’ responses.

The purpose of this paper is to examine aspects of the metaphorical meaning of the noun-noun compounds. Accordingly, what I have discussed in this paper is as follows. Firstly, it has been shown that conceptual metaphor can show up in noun-noun compounds in a variety of ways: on the modifying constituent, on the profile determinant, on both constituents of the compound, and on the relation between the two constituents of the compound. Second, the variety and complexity of cognitive meaning of the noun-noun compounds has been explored through conceptual metaphor theory and blend theory. The mainstay of conceptual metaphor theory is the conceptualization through mapping between the source domain and the target domain, but the process of the mapping has a fatal flaw. The blend theory has solved the defect of metaphor theory through its multi-space. The blend theory is a theory of the meaning construction which crucially involves partitioning the representation of sentence meaning into domains or spaces. Metaphoric mapping is also one manifestation of a more general mapping process which crucially involves the construction of blended space. This new and competing model has been called the ‘many-space’ model. In the course of comparison between the conceptual metaphor theory and blend theory in the explanatory adequacy, I have provided the evidence for the competitive role of the blend theory in interpreting the meaning of the metaphoric noun-noun compounds.

This study accounts for the difference in transferability of a Korean morphophonological rule (t-palatalization) and phonological process (s-palatalization) to L2 within the constraint-based framework. Kim (2002) accounts for Korean palatalization by positing two levels of ranking hierarchy―(a) [PAL & R-ANCHOR(stem; σ]Adjacent Segments >> PAL >> IDENT(ant) and (b) [PAL & R-ANCHOR(stem; σ]Adjacent Segments >> IDENT(ant) >> PAL. We have seen that the former ranking involved in the L1 phonological process (s-palatalization) is transferred to L2, and the latter ranking related to the L1 morphophonological rule is not transferred. In addition, we could account for correct pronunciation by re-ranking the relevant constraints―IDENT(ant) >> [PAL & R-ANCHOR(stem; σ]Adjacent Segments >> PAL.

The main purpose of this study is to provide an explicit analysis of speech errors in cross-linguistic transfer by using Recursive Constraint Demotion algorithm (Tesar & Smolensky 1998, 2000, Tesar 1998, Prince 2002) within the framework of Optimality theory (Prince & Smolensky 1993, McCarthy & Prince 1995). This study focuses on the examples that cause speech error where Korean phonological grammar, especially with regard to nasalization and lateralization, affects English pronunciation. Language learning simply means knowing the constraint hierarchy, since constraints are basically universal and language variation results from different rankings of constraints, according to the basic concept of OT. Therefore, this study pursues how Korean learners of English erroneously use native grammar (nasalization and lateralization), and confirms what happens when Korean grammar is applied to English pronunciation. In addition, variational speech error in Korean-English transfer (either mis-applied nasalization or laterlization to English) is also explained. This study shows that variational speech error results from speakers different usage of morphological structure for a given word.

The purpose of this study is to present a new point of view by combining ecocriticism with the study of nature and race in Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom!. Earlier ecocriticism revealed two limitations in focusing on ‘nature literature’, which is mainly composed of essays based on the observation of and reflection on nature. First, it was criticized in that it overlooked the social and political relationships implicated in nature, due to its obsession with ‘pure’ nature. Second, earlier ecocriticism’s exclusive concern on nature resulted in reducing its applicability to various literary genres including novels and neglecting various social environments in the analysis. Therefore, there have been recent attempts to introduce gender and race in ecocriticism. Considering such change in ecocriticism, Faulkner’s ecological awareness requires to be reestimated. He shows the recognition that the abuse of other races and the exploitation of nature in the South have the same root in the formation of the Euro-American self through the separation and appropriation of the Others. Thus, this study analyzes Absalom, Absalom! to reveal Faulkner’s ecological ideas. In Absalom, Absalom!, Thomas Sutpen builds his kingdom through the violent exploitation and appropriation of nature and other races. However, Sutpen’s plan inevitably causes his downfall, for it denies the interrelationship of the subject and the Others and separates the two. Faulkner contemplates, through Sutpen’s downfall, the history of violence wherein Southern society had exploited and destroyed nature and other races and reveals the unsustainability of the society that ignores the interrelationship between the subject and nature and other races.

This paper analyzes three participants’ spoken discourse to research a certain minor group. In doing this, their speech acts are examined on the basis of theory. The spoken discourse is composed of conversational narrative about the school punishment of Korean children. The analyses by the speech act theory suggests that narrative communication style has various discourse markers and structural functions between its propositional meaning and illocutionary force as shown in Austin’s (1962), Labov’s (1972b) and Searle’s (1969, 1989) arguments, showing the speakers’ directive (e.g. request) and representative (e.g. claim or report), as well as contextualization cue (shared knowledge) within the participants’ speech behavior by the argument of Gumperz (1982a). Brown & Levinson’s (1987) or Scollon & Scollon’s (1995) politeness strategies of face values were represented in participants’ solidarity relationship within the minor group during the speakers’ contribution to conversation. The data analyzed by speech act theory helped to explore both pragmatic and linguistic approaches to the oral narrative discourse. The study reveals that the application of speech act theory helps pursue social meaning, norms and reality from a language performance with propositional i.e. locutionary meaning on the basis of sociolinguistics (i.e. speech act theory).

The purpose of the study is mainly to examine whether learners are able to improve their level of vocabulary through different types of planning activities. In addition, the study also aims at exploring the extent to which their vocabulary is improved and what difference is made with regard to the planning activities, which they utilized during their writing tasks. To see if planning activities was useful in improving the lexical quality of writing, three sets of timed compositions produced by 71 university students were analyzed using the Lexical Frequency Profile (LFP). The results indicated that there were significant differences among written compositions in terms of the three variables—word token, lexical variation, and lexical density. Overall, word token at most of the vocabulary levels tended to increase regardless of any type of planning activities while learners showed vocabulary improvement in terms of lexical variation including 1000 and ‘not in the list’ level. However, the result of lexical density showed that the planning activities did not affect the lexical density of the composition since learners got the highest scores in the first writing task with no planning activity. The implications of these findings are discussed with the usefulness of planning activities which help learners to effectively retrieve vocabulary and select correct forms.

Little critical attention has been paid to the recurring motifs of loss and suffering contrived in elegiac Old English poems, in particular, The Wife’s Lament and The Riming Poem. The key purpose of this article is to examine how these works represent the speakers’ persistent meditations on their wretched, irresistible hardships of bereavement and distress triggered largely by the unanticipated mutability of human affairs. The speakers’ keen awareness of the displacement of a dearest person, fame, joy, or stability drives them to undertake distress which is hurled into a discord between fate and human willpower. This paper also explores the unique way in which both speakers articulate their agonizing thoughts of pain and loss in the tragic circumstances. They unveil complex responses to their internal torments in different ways, especially, in their religious perspectives on the elimination of anguish inside them.

Complaining that the legacy of early modern despair caused many writers to enlarge a particular sensitivity to banality and ugliness, Bellow accepted Judaism, which was positive, affirmative, optimistic. This essay deals with the alienation, recognition and rebirth of hero in Herzog from the view of Judaism. The hero is alienated from his family and friends because of his ego-centric character. He feels self-pity and expresses himself through incomplete and unmailed letter writing. But this letter writing means a forward step to solve his problem, even though the pattern of his thinking and feeling circulate only within himself. He still blames others for his sufferings, and not himself. In Judaism, suffering is essential to a recognition. After witnessing the trial of insane mother who kill her three-year-old poor baby and seeing his ex-wife and her paramour wash his daughter, he begins to understand the reality of life. He understands that life can not be explained and should be experienced. By abandoning his own ego and accepting the others as they are, he is reborn spiritually. Also Suffering is a bliss for the recognition of brotherhood, the uniqueness of an individual, the dignity and the divinity of man.

This essay offers Coleridge’s self-conscious notion of evil reflected in “Christabel”. His notion of self-knowledge and self-consciousness emphasizes the certainty of subjective truth. For him, it ensures a human’s innate ability of knowing truth, which is possibly obtained through reflection. Therefore, he tends to turn inward as he searches for great truths pertaining to his explorations of the meaning of good and evil. Understanding evil is as important as understanding good because Coleridge considers both to be interwoven. Without an understanding of evil, one cannot comprehend what good is. In the case of Coleridge’s approach to understanding evil, he accepts both biblical explanations and related philosophical arguments; however, he also seems to search for his inner self suffering as he reflects on his sense of guilt brought on by his sexual desires, his lack of will, and his lapse into an opium overdose, etc. His self-acknowledgement of the existence of evil obtained from his own inner search comprises some particularity with regards to his explanations of evil, which is smeared throughout his poems. His explanations are relegated to symbols of the problem as he insists that truth can only be grasped through symbols. “Christabel”, like other poems such as “Ancient Mariner” and “Limbo”, raises awareness of the complexities surrounding the meaning of evil. This essay examines the relevance between “Christabel” and the problem of evil that is reflected in the poet’s mind.

This study investigates in the perspective of modernity, Charles Dickens who wrote in the 19th century London, England which fully opened the era of modernity. The modernity of England which was historically the first to enter modern society can be characterized by capitalism and civil society. This study looks at how Dickens grasps the period’s transformation as it transfers from medieval feudal hierarchy society to modern capitalist civil society by observing his major novels. Dickens has a critical stance against capitalism which marked the epoch of modernity in history. Not overlooking the possibility of materialistic prosperity that capitalism may bring, he shows it to be a system that can not be morally justified due to its essential exploiting structure. Especially, his later works show the person at the top of national economy to be the financial capitalist, illustrating capitalism’s basic problems further degenerated. Writing with not the rural area or industrial city but the world’s center of finance, London as the setting to his novels, Dickens novels foresee the attributes of contemporary late capitalism. Capitalism which makes capital dominate labor or human life can on the other hand provide a breakthrough to human liberation. With industrialization and urbanization, the modern urbanites become much liberated from the hierarchy that had confined traditional society. However, what Dickens witnessed was the possibility for a free and equal civil society fall back due to materialism and the aspiration to be a gentleman. By grasping how the nation’s obsessive emulation for gentlemen is related to the imperialist economy parasitic on colonies, Dickens depicts both the possibility and problems of modernity in his time of modern capitalist civil society.

It has been established in the literature that pronunciation of a letter or letter sequences in English is affected by the surrounding context. Specifically, it has been suggested that in many cases of English vowel graphemes, the potential candidates of their actual pronunciation could be significantly narrowed down if one knows the consonant that follows and/or precedes the vowel graphemes. The purpose of the current paper is to ask whether the same type of effect can also be found from Korean EFL learners in their reading English nonsense words. This study shows that Korean learners of English make use of certain amount of context information in mapping letters to sounds in reading in their target language. The current results additionally indicate that Korean learners of English are also sensitive to the overall frequency of graphemes’ pronunciations in the English words in general. Based on these findings, we suggest that Korean learners of English may pick up the statistical regularities governing letter-to-sound correspondences as a part of their second language learning process and use this implicit knowledge in processing L2 nonwords.

The purpose of this study is to compare L1 sentence interpretation strategies in English and Korean within the paradigm of the Competition Model. It further attempts to examine the L2 sentence processing strategies by English-speaking learners of Korean as a second language (KSL) at varying L2 proficiency levels. The present study involved three groups of participants: native English speakers, native Korean speakers, and English-speaking learners of KSL at different proficiency levels (i.e., beginning, intermediate, and advanced). The participants were asked to identify the agents of sentences, each consisting of one verb and two nouns, in which animacy and word order cues either competed or were consistent with each other. The results showed that native English speakers relied heavily on word order as the major cue to L1 sentence interpretation, while native Korean speakers showed great dependence on animacy as the dominant source for L1 sentence interpretation. This study also found a general shift from the syntax-based processing strategies to semantics-based ones in Korean L2 acquisition in accordance with the English KSL learners’ L2 proficiency levels. Learners with lower L2 proficiency transferred L1-based animacy processing strategies to their Korean interlanguage. As their L2 proficiency increased, English KSL learners gradually became less dependent on L1-based animacy processing strategies and more reliant on L2-based word order processing strategies to comprehend sentences in Korean.

This research proposes to investigate the newly emerging interest in “form” as an important critical method in the Romantic studies for the last two decades. Romantic formal criticism, distinct from formalism in the past, is in the course of reshaping discussions of Romantic literature. Before 1990, “form” had been largely marginalized in the long history of Romantic studies. New criticism, Deconstruction, and New Historicism shared the common ground in that they all subscribed to the traditional idea of “Romantic organicism.” As a result, generic experimentation was disregarded, and discussions of Romantic literature were confined within the boundary of lyricism, without the due attention to its concern with history and the audience. Reversing this tradition, formal criticism views concepts such as “organic coherence” or “cognitive totality” in negative lights, and instead, takes interest in formal instability and indetermination. Romantic formal criticism is also characterized by its strong commitment to historical analysis. William Wordsworth’s “Tintern Abbey” is a good example that shows a revised reading informed by formal criticism. While its affinity to the “ode” reveals the dialectic quality and a resistance to closure, as a “conversation poem,” it constantly oscillates between sameness and otherness as is apparent in the figure of Dorothy as the “past self.”

The purpose of this paper is to provide a proper explanation to the collocational dependency between resultative phrases and verbs of resultative sentences. Resultative sentences describe the state of an internal argument referent resulting from the action denoted by the verb. The analysis of resultative sentences in this paper are based on Goldberg’s constructional view. Under the constructional view, resultative sentences are assumed to be composed of verbal subevent and constructional subevent. The verbal subevent and constructional subevent must be intergrated via causal relationship. I suggest two types of resultatives according to the causative meaning that resultatives have: lexical causative resultatives (LCR) which have the causative meaning from an inherent lexical verb and constructional causative resultatives (CCR) which get the causative meaning from constructional subevent. The CCR is analyzed as having a constructional subevent and a verbal subevent. The LCR, on the other hand, is understood as having a constructional subevent only. The CCR shows more restricted collocation dependency between verbs and resultative phrases than the LCR. I propose that the CCR must satisfy a causal relationship constraint in the cause and result relationship between constructional subevent and verbal subevent, whereas the LCR is free from the causal relationship constraint because the LCR is assumed to have only constructional subevent.

Within a sociocultural framework, a growing number of L2 studies claim that learners’ collaborative talk provides opportunities for second language (L2) learning. Despite the increasing interest in such talk, there is little research that presents a holistic analysis and evaluation of interaction patterns embedded in collaborative talk, occurring during joint editing task, as well as the resulting learning outcomes. Recognizing this paucity, the current study examined learners’ interaction doing editing tasks via an in-depth, descriptive analysis. Delayed post-tests were conducted on the specific linguistic items produced during the tasks in order to assess learning outcomes of the collaborative talk. This study presents several new findings and raises issues that the major sociocultural-based research undertaken to date has neglected. A major finding is that, unlike promising findings in the L2 literature in relation to the role of collaborative talk, this study does not show any robust evidence that learners’ collaborative talk promotes L2 learning. Also, it demonstrates that interactional features in the talk were often non-collaborative. This provides a possible explanation for the less positive role of collaborative talk in L2 learning. The study implies that the nature of interaction in learners’ dialogue may not be always collaborative. Therefore, it is important that researchers and teachers have realistic expectation of learners’ dialogue, which may include interaction of an intricate and often complex nature.