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This paper has attempted to show how referential opacity is licensed within the system of the mental spaces approach. Our analysis is motivated by the fact that we can capture referential opacity in Korean in terms of mental spaces and links between them within the mental spaces approach. One major point of propositional attitudes in Korean is that the embedded subject position with past tense induces only a de re reading, despite the well-known generalization that propositional attitudes are referentially opaque. We take this fact as support for the assumption that subject positions in the complement of propositional attitude verbs in Korean are transparent. Most importantly, we have discussed the cases of referential opacity in Korean propositional attitude sentences and proposed that they fall within the system of the mental spaces approach. No special devices are needed to account for referential opacity in Korean propositional attitude sentences. An interesting point with regard to a de re reading within the system of the mental spaces approach is that there is a referential link between the reality space (R) and the belief space (B). With respect to a de dicto reading, on the other hand, it is important to note that there is no referential link between the reality space (R) and the belief space (B). Finally, we have proposed in this paper that in Korean propositional attitude sentences pronouns induce interpretations that are looser than reflexives and pro yields interpretations that are looser than pronouns.

Korean ESL students tend to have a desire to have American friends and improve their spoken English skills (Kang, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011). In order to understand the motives behind this desire, this qualitative case study explored Korean ESL students’ perceptions about benefits that they would obtain from American friends. The participants were nine Korean students studying in an intensive English program at a university in the US, five of whom later became regular students in an undergraduate program and a masters program. The findings of this study reveal that the Korean ESL students perceived that they would have four types of benefits from interactions with American friends: (a) improving their English speaking skills (b) learning American culture, (c) getting useful information for their life in the US, and (d) having social support. Among the four benefits, Korean students put the most emphasis on improving their English speaking skills. The findings also show that over time there was a change in Korean students’ perceptions about each benefit. Korean students’ perceptions of improving their speaking skills weakened after experiencing interactions with Americans. In contrast, Korean students’ perceptions of experiencing culture and getting useful information from their American friends strengthened as they stayed in the US longer and interacted with their American friends.

This paper argues that intelligibility should be a modest and realistic goal in current pronunciation teaching. Accordingly, I suggest that suprasegmental features such as syllables, stress, and rhythm should be taught explicitly in formal pronunciation classrooms to enhance the level of intelligibility. The lack of stress in Korean leads Korean EFL speakers to have lots of difficulties in speech production and perception. These difficulties arise mostly from Korean learners’ tendency to place prominence on every syllable and, in particular, on the first syllable of a word, which I dub the Initial Prominence Phenomenon in this paper. Rhythm, another important suprasegmental feature, plays the most significant part in enhancing Korean learners’ level of intelligibility. Furthermore, rhythm is treated as the most prominent key factor that characterizes Korean EFL learners as a foreigner.

This paper aims at analyzing new historical elements related with the forming process of domestic rituals that mediates the continuity between European culture and New World conditions more than with postcolonial perspectives. Cather renders Quebec city and its Auclair’s home as the cultural inheritances and the domestic rituals of the French customs and traditions meeting the physicality of the settlement of New World. Cěcile has been the medium for the rules of French bourgeois household to which Madame Auclair taught her. Thus her memory and beliefs are preserved as the culture’s rituals continue, perpetuated in Cěcile’s housekeeping. Also, Charron represents the archetypal mediator of Old World and New World to lead Cěcile to Canadian nature, and to provide a safe place where this housekeeping woman can ritualistically form a stability and a continuity as both her protector and her husband. Accordingly this paper deals with new historic elements of domestic rituals to challenge the uniform postcolonial perspectives and the conventional boundaries concerning ethnicity, gender, and class. It approaches the true historicity of the little narratives that Old World culture slowly transforms itself into New World phenomenon, as Cěcile and Charron become mother and father to the Canadians of the future.

Most of the post-modern writers including Philip Larkin show ambivalence toward some metaphysical or religious motifs in their poetry. Under the so-called scientific world view they should not confess their religious faith or reveal the spiritual insight conclusively, but they, nevertheless, could not avoid expressing regret or envy about the past traditional belief and its consolation. A bird beshorn of wings, as in Thomas Hardy’s “The Impercipient”, can not soar into the sky but go earth-bound against its will. Though the consolations of religion was officially unavailable to Larkin throughout his life, he also envied those who had faith and fervently wished to embrace it. But his “intellectual purity” largely restrained him from subscribing to Christian belief. To believe at all deeply in the Christian God, as Amis announces in The Anti-Death League, was a disgrace to human decency and intelligence. It is undeniable that there is a strong current of skepticism running through Larkin’s all four volumes of poetry. However, his agnosticism does not entirely exclude sympathy with religious feeling in many of his visionary poems. This kind of apparently contradicting emotional and intellectual conflict between modern scientific world view and religious perspective was the source of his poetic creation.

This study was designed to investigate the effects of the English composition instruction based on the process-oriented approach on improving English writing performance. A total of 35 college students in this study was administered questionnaires concerning the use of English writing strategies and peer feedback. Each student completed the whole class of the semester and essay writings before and after the semester. The results showed that the students used more strategies for the post writing than the pre writing. More students reported that they felt peer feedback was useful in the second survey. It was found that there was some evidence of a relationship between the process-oriented writing instruction and the students’ English writing performance. Fluency and grammatical accuracy of the writings proved to be significantly improved, while no statistical difference in the syntactic complexity appeared. Fluency, syntactic complexity, and grammatical accuracy were identified to be the indications of the improvement of English writing performance. The findings in this study will advance our understanding of EFL writing performance and assessments and contribute to broader examination of how EFL students engage in revision of their writing in diverse contexts.

This paper analyzes the features of Hopkins’ labourers, taking especial note of similarities with Ruskin’s thought. Having been a Jesuit, Hopkins understands the terrible situation of the poor in England and is pessimistic in his expectations for their future. However, he idealizes the life and work of the poor in his poems, borrowing several concepts from Ruskin. At first, in “Felix Randal”, Hopkins makes Felix the smith a happy and proud worker at his forge. The concept of the happy worker is an idea of Ruskin’s, and very unique for its time in its suggestion that work could be a source of pleasure and that a worker might feel a sense of self-achievement through his creative endeavor. In “Tom’s Garland,” Tom and Dick, day-labourers at a construction site, cooperate and develop healthy bonds with each other like Ruskin’s workers. Tom’ steel garland is quite similar with Ruskin’s idea of ‘The Work of Iron’ and Tom’s easy mind and careless behavior is closely related to Ruskin’s conceptions of “Savageness or Rudeness.” Like Ruskin, Hopkins expresses strong objection to all violent activities by malignant people or the unemployed. So, “Harry Ploughman” celebrates the statically agricultural society in which everyone helps everyone else and all are truly obedient to legitimate authority. Therefore, a plough is embossed as the symbol of the peasant’s simple yet hard work, obedience to God, and self-sacrificing efforts for Commonwealth, just as in Ruskin.

Identifying and analyzing errors of language learners has been one of the major practices to serve the various purposes of such applied linguistics as language learning and teaching, language acquisition, and language testing. However, far too little attention has been paid to error-coder trainings, considering that error-coders’ consistent and accurate practice directly affect the reliability and validity of a study. This paper discusses the issues and decisions taken during a series of such error-coding trainings as introduction, workshop, feedback, and discussion. 96 written scripts extracted from the Yonsei English Learner Corpus (YELC) 2012 were used and four native speakers of English, who are currently teaching English at Yonsei University Foreign Language Institute, were hired as error-coders. A simplified version of the error tagging manual (Dagneaux et.al., 1996) was used to train the coders. For the error-coder calibration, agreement rates among coders were not only measured three times, but also a questionnaire survey and group interview were conducted. In this talk, This study reports a) what problems do the error-coders encounter in identifying errors and assigning codes corresponding to errors; b) why do the coders think they are problematic; and c) how do we deal with problems.

The purpose of this study is to find out the relation between understanding and perception of Content-Based Instruction (CBI) in an integrated English language and Physical Education course. For this study, 129 students taking a preschool Physical Education course completed a questionnaire. Before the questionnaire, 34 students in an experimental group learned about the English and Physical education integrated course, while others in a control group did not. The results of the questionnaire between the two groups were compared and analyzed statistically. The results of this study show that the experimental group’s perception including ‘degree of necessity,’ ‘possibility of application is significantly more positive than that of control group. Such a result means that leaning and understanding of Content-Based Instruction properly has a positive effect on improving the perception of Content-Based Instruction in that it removes the vague fear of teaching in English. Hence, to expand Content-Based Instruction, providing information and materials about Content-Based Instruction to non English major participants will be needed.

Monique Truong, a Vietnamese American writer, probes the representation of the third world subject by letting her subaltern subject speak of his experience with Gertrude Stein in The Book of Salt. Binh, the subaltern chef in the novel, recounts his woeful experiences of living on the fringes of society, marginalized and stigmatized as the colonized. By engaging with the life of Gertrude Stein, Truong rewrites Stein from the perspective of the subaltern. In the process, Stein’s status as a writer is interrogated and challenged to critique western discourse represented by Stein. For much of the story, Stein is depicted as a master who provides a shelter to Binh. Yet, Stein is revealed by her colonial, nonchalant, and unimaginative approach to Binh’s experiences. Food functions as a powerful measure with which Binh navigates the multifaceted postcolonial world, picking his ways around the pitfalls of class, race, and sexuality. Empowered by the culinary techniques, Binh is able to destabilize the power relations and hierarchies which have been imposed on him by society. Binh turns his experiences of abjection into a compelling story of “salt,” through memory and imagination.

The purpose of this paper is to identify the aspects of tragic affirmation in The Great Gatsby and The Old Man and the Sea nd to compare them. Both Gatsby and Santiago seem to be foolish in terms of modern capitalism of pursuing material success. But it is certain that their doings have an affirmative effect through tragedy. Gatsby in The Great Gatsby resulted in the tragic death from his tragic flaw. But Nick, reliable narrator, said to Gatsby “You ’re worth the whole damn bunch put together” because of his extraordinary gift for romantic dream. We can find that Gatsby’s tragedy carries an tragic affirmation. Santiago in The Old Man and the Sea brings in a bare skeleton of the Marlin because of sharks’ attack. Although he told the boy that “They(sharks) beat me”, his three days’ journey is something important that shows the boy(readers) the old man’s greatness. Santiago faces adversity with dignity and grace. He also had a cosmic vision through harmonious relationship between man and nature. In view of his doings the old man’s tragedy carries not external success but inner success. Finally, we can find the paradox of tragic affirmation in both Gatsby and Santiago. Thus, the success of the two novels lies in paradoxical narrative of tragic affirmation.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze realization of dream and redemption of love in The Great Gatsby. The condition of human life is to aspire and realize the dream, so it is natural for a man to pursue his own ideal. Such a dream enables a man to project himself towards his purpose of life, to heighten his subjective value of life. Gatsby made his appearance before Daisy when he achieved the success of rags-to-riches as ‘American Dream.’ Gatsby tried to redeem the romantic love with Daisy in Louisville in the process of realizing his own dream from the past. It appeared that she was too contaminated by a material life as much as Tom to enter the world of Gatsby’s dream. His extraordinary effort for love with Daisy kept him striving to make his dream real against time and reality steadily. Gatsby never doubted Daisy’ love for himself. But as a result of the Buchanans’ snobbish conspiracy to kill him, Gatsby was shot to death in his pool, waiting for Daisy to call him. But Gatsby’s future-oriented idealism beats on, forever, transcending his death and the realm of reality. Nick ascribes Gatsby’s greatness to his hopeful idealism. Gatsby’s dream made his life meaningful and glorious. His dream is the concept that includes the eternal love of human life, transcending time and space, life and death. Therefore, Gatsby can be really “Great” in that Gatsby’s love for his own is redeemed through the realization of his dream.

The purpose of this study is to show the difference between English-native speakers and Korean-native speakers in reciting Son.116. and to identify the acoustic characteristics of English-native speakers in reciting the sonnet lines unmatched between metrical position and linguistic stress. Three acoustic characteristics (duration, intensity and pitch) are measured to analyze the recitation of Son.116. For English-native speakers, the nPVI-V(duration), nPVI-V(intensity) and nPVI-V(pitch) are higher than those of Korean-native speakers. The final-phrase lengthening at the final foot makes the largest duration difference between weak and strong position. When the prominence of vowel duration matches that of vowel intensity, the range of duration change becomes larger, which results in the higher nPVI-V(duration). For English-native speakers, the vowel duration of strong position is not longer than that of weak position in case there are two unstressed or stressed syllables in the metrical foot. The change pattern of the vowel intensity shows a strong resemblance to that of vowel pitch. The change pattern of pitch does not correspond to the metrical positions.

Based on Information Structure, this paper is to investigate how to teach passive voice to students in Korea focusing on the difference in meaning between active and passive voice sentences. Still, most of Korean EFL students in every English class are practicing how to change an active voice sentence to a passive voice without the notion of the meaning difference. For this study, the participants are 48 university students and they are divided into three groups according to their TOEIC score. They are given 8 questions about the difference of meaning between an active sentence and a passive one and 15 questions about the form of passive sentences. After finishing answering those questions, they also participate in a survey on whether they ever heard of the difference in meaning between passive and active voices. The result shows that there is no relation between how well students understand the meaning of a passive sentence and their TOEIC score. Furthermore, even students with low level of English ability can fully understand the meaning of a passive if they have a chance to learn. Therefore, in order for students to better understand the real meaning of a passive voice sentence and its practical usage, it is imperative that teachers themselves be equipped with the knowledge of Information Structure because teaching passive voices should be based on information structure and the change needs to be shown in every textbook at high schools.

The purpose of this paper is to compare and analyze the ellipsis of English and Korean. Language is changeable and then ellipsis is natural. There are situational ellipsis, structural ellipsis, and functional ellipsis in language ellipsis. Among them situational ellipsis is a very important thing because of the context of discourse and writing. In English ellipsis, there are noun ellipsis in noun phrase, verb ellipsis in verb phrase, interrogatives, subordinate clause, etc. In Korean ellipsis, there are ellipses of suffixes and constituents. Subject ellipsis and verb ellipsis are frequent ellipsis in English and Korean. However, if a subject ellipsize, the sentences can be ambiguous according to their structure. Especially, English is more frequent than Korean. In Korean if a verb ellipsize, the sentence cannot be understood because of the verb is head of sentence between English and Korean. The situation of discourse and writing is important in ellipsis of English and Korean. Nowadays, our life is very complex and variable. Therefore ellipsis is natural to avoid such a phenomenon. Ellipsis must be used in appropriate and accurate situation. Ellipsis is very important thing but should be used in a discourse and sentence appropriately. English as well as Korean has an ellipsis phenomenon. Situational, structural, and functional ellipsis in using ellipsis should be considered in English as well as Korean. These are very important and considerable things in ellipsis between English and Korean.

J. D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye(1951) is the narrative of an adolescent’s quest for identity within a defective society of adults. In the novel, Hold Caulfield, a 16-year-old boy, is expelled from Pency Prep School, after being removed form three others previously. Though his identity becomes confused for three days in New York after being removed from the school and while witnessing every kind of societal breakdown, he is ultimately healed with the help of his younger sister, Phoebe. It is narrated by a narrator, a seventeen- year-old Holden confined to a mental institution. He tells us that the definitive meaning of American’s disillusioned life is expressed as ‘phony.’ In this disfunctional society his innocence and idealistic nature causes him to become alienated and confused, and to search for his identity. Holden wants to be ‘the catcher in the rye’ to protect all innocent children from falling from the cliffs of life. However, he thinks of all children’s childhood including his own one as a time of innocence that he cannot recapture or perpetuate and thus he must begin the process of coming of age by finding his own identity in reality and beginning to accept the inevitable imperfections, corruptions and brutality of the world he inhabits.

Based on two cognitive categories, activation and identifiability, Lambrecht (1994) distinguishes four different types of discourse referents, i.e. active, accessible, inactive, unidentifiable, which represent different mental representation of those referents in the minds of the speaker and addressee, and he suggests the topic acceptability scale, which states that there is a general correlation between the activation and identifiability states of topic referents and the pragmatic acceptability of sentences. According to the scale, the most easily acceptable sentences are those whose topics are active since the mental cost to process active topics is low, and the degree of acceptability decreases in the following order: accessible, inactive and unidentifiable topics. In fact, unidentifiable referents cannot be topics since it is impossible because the addressee has to interpret the proposition of a sentence which is about something he cannot even identify. The main purpose of this paper is to show how topics in different activation/identifiability states are expressed in Korean, and it is shown that topic referents belonging to different activation/ identifiability states adopt different strategies to be expressed as topics. Active topics, which are assumed to be the most easily accepted, are generally expressed as zero pronouns and bare NPs, which requires the minimum amount of mental cost to process them. Accessible referents, which are frequently used as topics in Korean, show that they need the marker -nun to be expressed as topic. Finally, Korean uses the marker -nun or the maliya construction to encode inactive topics.

The characters in Pinter’s works play games with words not only to face the reality of life, but also to protect themselves from others. In The Homecoming, the main characters use abusive words and sometimes fight against each other to secure their own field. Especially, the male characters fight for hegemony even before Teddy coming back home with his wife, Ruth. They fabricate the pasts and idealize themselves to vie for power. But they all give in to Ruth’s power, including Teddy. Ruth’s intuitive words, which are well contrasted with Teddy’s metaphysical words, elicit immediate responses from her opponents. Besides, The Homecoming illustrates the violent force that abusive words bring about and the negative effect that distorted words cause. The Homecoming starts with family rows, specifically a quarrel between father and son in a ‘motherless’ home. Their conflict intensifies on the ground of the breakdown and change of family structure, which occurs in the motherless home. In a traditional home, a mother internalizes family ideology and teaches her children patriarchal disciplines. But if the mother is not in the home or refuses to accept the role as a discipliner, her children don’t have any chance to acquire patriarchal norms. In The Homecoming, Jessie is not obedient to patriarchal rules, but she has not given up being a mother. In short, in The Homecoming, Jessie exists as an “absent presence.” Ruth finally comes to substitute for Jessie. In the past, female bodies and their sexual desire were just a means to satisfy male sexual desire. But now female bodies and their sexual desire are dominant ideologies, and sometiems control those of male. In The Homecoming, Ruth refuses to accept imposed feminity and finds her new identity as an independent woman. She becomes a representative ‘Pinteresque’ female character who opposes the oppressive marriage institution and patriarchy, and tries to pursue her true life. In conclusion, Ruth is not a passive female character who necessarily follows outmoded traditions, but a positive female character who is willing to sacrifice everything for whatever she wants. In short, Ruth is one of Pinter’s most fully developed idealized female characters.

This paper aims to examine the common and different aspects between the readings of the donkey sentences and function, and to reveal some limits on interpreting the readings of the donkey sentences by function. To do this, in chapter 2 the representative readings of the donkey sentences are presented, in chapter 3 the characteristics and kinds of functions are examined and functional features that are found in the natural languages are discovered, and in chapter 4 the donkey sentences are interpreted by function. The result is that there are some readings that can represent the donkey sentences by function, while there are others that can not. In the case of the former, it has been discovered that a universal reading corresponds to a weak reading, but an existential reading to a strong reading. Meanwhile, in the case of the later, it has been revealed that a universal reading is called a strong reading, while an existential reading a weak reading. In addition, it has been concluded that E-type readings and pair quantification readings have also some limits in that the donkey sentences are not easy to be interpreted by function, that is, which are non-functional.

“Circe” in Ulysses is the chapter in which Bloom’s suppressed desire is unleashed and sublimated. More recently, for many critics it is considered as a Joyce’s critique of sexual discrimination and patriarchy in the sense that Bloom’s perversity is the outcome of social biases on sexuality. However, Bloom’s perversity, especially his androgyny not only implies social criticism but also is the essential element in Joyce’s theory of creativity. Since Plato, androgyne imagination has been an important aspect of the Western literary theory of creativity. Therefore, a study on “Circe”, or Bloom’s perversity such as androgyny should be at once the study on Joyce’s theory of creativity through feminine imagery and the study on the changes and consequences in the history of sexuality and femininity. This paper, accordingly, analyzes some aspects of Circe’s images in ancient works, compares them with those of “Circe” in Ulysses, and examines Bloom’s androgyny in its historical context. Circe in the classic works has the same positive aspects such as creativity, rebirth, sublimation and initiation for men rather than negative aspects as a witch. These positive aspects function as an essential condition for Bloom to transform himself to a reformer and an artist and to achieve his humanity. That is, “Circe” in Ulysses at once criticizes existing sexual morality and reveals the positive aspects of femininity as seen in the Circe images since ancient times, which helps to understand the relation between Joyce’s theory of creativity and its indebtedness to the ancient tradition. This paper, through the examples in the classics, examines the historical condition that “Circe” shows when Joyce’s theory of creativity meets Bloom’s androgyny in the historical context.

Suicide has historically been considered a subject of fear and taboo. Literature, however, has seriously dealt with suicide as a form of death, the eternal enigma of human existence, even during the period when suicide was not permitted. Shakespeare also refers to suicide as a natural deed in a number of his works in spite of the social circumstances of his time when suicide was considered religiously a sin and legally wrong. Today, as suicide has been accepted as a general fact of modern society, suicide has become one of the most prominent interests in literature. As a result, various aspects of suicide—as an extreme method of expressing a main character’s frustration and despair, a tool for solving a variety of conflicts, an indication of resistance against irregularities and corruption in society, or a result of disease, etc.—have been endlessly reproduced in various works of literature. Though suicide in literature is fictional, it embraces various mechanisms of actual suicide. This leads to understanding and sympathy, instead of condemnation or criticism, as it symbolically represents existential problems originating from the agony of the period, irregularities and corruption in society, and frustration and despair due to damage to an individual’s value and dignity. This gains sympathy not only in modern literature, but also in the suicide of Shakespeare’s characters, more broadly, in Hamlet’s death.

This paper explores the ecological codes of Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman through the lens of ecocriticism, in particular, social ecofeminism. The play has been criticized from various critical vantage points such as Willy’s character, his family relations, and social problems, etc. Ecological matters, however, have rarely been investigated since the play was produced in 1949. It is meaningful and long overdue to find ecological codes in the work. So in green reading the cannonical work, numerous ecological messages can be found in this time of the serious ecological crisis. Social ecofeminism insists that patriarchy ideology is the seed of the domination in a family, a society, and at last, an ecological world. The notion that man dominates woman in a family and dominates other men in a society extends to the idea that man has a right to dominate nature. Willy is a traditional patriarchal man in his family. But ironically, he is dominated by another man, his boss in the patriarchal capitalist society. The American dream and the frontier myth he has desired during his whole life are also the outcomes of the domination ideology. The landscape of the play very poignantly represents the domination of nature by man such as environmental pollution and destruction of ecosystem. Willy’s destruction is identified with that of nature throughout the play. Ecologically, therefore, Willy’s dreams are estimated as “the wrong dreams.” We have to pay ecological attention to the healing, recovery and preservation of nature to survive together in the house of the globe.

The present article reports on a follow-up study that highlights the lived experiences of English teachers who took a critical pedagogy class in a teacher education program and now work in multiple contexts of English education in Korea. Through follow-up interviews with nine teachers who spoke highly of their experience in a critically oriented graduate seminar and were able to develop a positive teacher identity, the study explores how these positive experiences manifest in real world classrooms situated within larger sociopolitical and historical contexts. Working within a qualitative research paradigm, I collected and analyzed data from multiple semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal that the teachers’ renewed professional identity as legitimate teachers of English held strong, leading them to take a more active role in the classroom and to use English with confidence. Some, however, confessed they could not help feeling self-conscious while speaking English in public in spite of their renewed confidence, given the widespread prejudice towards accented English in Korea. In the previous study, the teachers expressed a determination to educate their students from a critical perspective, introducing not only the concept of world Englishes but also the colonial discourses attached to English and their negative consequences. Despite this resolution, the teachers found it difficult to implement critical pedagogy in their classrooms owing to various restrictions in Korean primary and secondary school setting, such as the prescribed curriculum, the college entrance system, and students’ lack of interest.

The purpose of this research is to investigate one of the lenition processes, especially voicing phenomenon in (southern) Old English. The voicing of initial fricatives as shown in the southern and south-western dialects of Old and Middle English, which has generally been regarded as a phonological progression in those regions between two periods (Nielsen 1994: 19), is well known among English historical phonologists and philologists, and has long been discussed in the discourse of both historical and theoretical phonology. In the present paper, we have examined various aspects of the voicing of initial fricatives in OE. For example, OE consonant system is reviewed by showing that the phonemicization of voiceless/voiced fricatives are demonstrated in detail. Furthermore, it is shown that voiceless fricatives in initial position had been replaced by voiced ones since the voicing of initial fricatives in OE is originally motivated by intervocalic environment between words or sentences. In addition, I suggest that a theoretical approach to this phenomenon should throw new light on the unsloved problems (e.g. lenition and position).

The purpose of this study is to analyze students’ verbal interactions during their reading activity. Twelve college students participated and they were divided into four groups based on the achievement test: high level groups (group 1 and 2) and low level groups (group 3 and 4). Data were gathered by three different methods such as informal interview, transcripts of students’ discourse and researcher’s log. Students’ verbal interactions were tape-recorded and analyzed. It has been found that 1) during their cooperative reading activity students asked questions to get verification and for clarification of a confusing point, 2) when asked for help, they provided both direct help (translation and identification, feedback) and indirect help(procedural suggestion for the following activity steps, conceptual instruction, elaboration), and 3) they also voluntarily provided indirect help (instruction and hint), and direct help(modification and feedback) even when not asked for help. Instructional implications for the effective cooperative reading activity were discussed.