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This paper aims at analyzing the ironical relation of the black fatherhood and the imaginary self working through the repression and the dominance embedded in the unfair structure of black patriarchy in Toni Morrison’s Love. Emotionally detached by fathers, May, Heed, Christine, and Junior give themselves over to the patriarchy, the man who looms even larger in their imaginary self than in their real lives. To overcome the trauma of their parental abandonment and betrayal, they seek the physical and psychic solace, and the protection in Bill Cosy. However, the fantasy experiencing from Cosy’s hotel and resort magnify the desire for support from the larger symbolic structures to prevent anxiety and fear. Even though May, Heed, Christine, and Junior see Cosy through idealizing eyes, his patriarchy mimics the hierarchy and the exclusive structure of the white dominant culture. The imaginary self on Cosy’s patriarchy can trigger the vicious circle of repression and discrimination. Accordingly, parental affection, family nurturing, and community solidarity can contribute for black women to recover their earlier friendship and love by perceiving the reality of Cosy’s patriarchy.

The struggle for national independence and the search for an authentic cultural identity often coincide. In the case of Africa, where an entire continent has been subjected to unprecedented levels of exploitation as a result of Western imperialism, cultural assertion and the revival of indigenous social traditions have gone hand and hand with the political struggle for freedom from foreign domination. The work of the Ghanaian writer Ayi Kwei Armah continues this tradition. Like the generation of writers who wrote during the period immediately preceding and following independence in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Armah was inspired by the anti-colonial struggle and shared the hopes and aspirations of the broad masses. Like these writers, he exposes in his work the destructive nature of imperialism, documents the mental anguish that results from colonial racial policies and sets out to rehabilitate Africa’s history by evoking the sense of continuity that has existed throughout the continent’s long struggle to survive the onslaught of European domination. What distinguishes Armah’s novels from the literature that was produced on the eve of independence is their exposure of the betrayal of African independence and their condemnation of Africa’s new ruling elites. The purpose of this paper is to trace the intellectual and artistic progression in Armah’s work and in doing so to demonstrate that the strength and limitation of the author’s vision is his radical nationalism.

This paper explores Alice Munro’s discourse on the lives of old age in the context of the ageing society in which the discourse of the elderly can make a positive role in social change. Based on the discourse of elderly people in the fields of social science, geriatrics, psychology and women’s studies, two works by Munro, “Dance of the Happy Shades” and “Dolly” are used as texts for this research. These works deal with characters who are able to work on their own in their seventies or eighties. This paper, in the elderly discourse of these works, tries to draw a positive aspect from the elderly and to find a productive way to become an anti ageist. The characteristics of Munro’s elderly discourse is unique. Munro does not expose the negative stereotypes of the elderly nor condemn false beliefs and ageism prevalent in society. Munro does not claim the need for reconstruction of contradictory order, but shows a reconstructed world already dismantled for readers. Munro presents an exemplary model that readers may follow. As Munroe’s method of elderly discourse suggests an alternative solution, more concerns and efforts are projected than other discourses that call for the need for reconstruction.

While McCarthy’s earlier novels deal explicitly with violence, murder, torture, rape, and incest, The Road surpasses them in its almost absolute atmosphere of meaningless and menace. In this novel, the world seems to be dead in terms of nature and morality; a world where cannibalism is a constant threat and civilization is beyond saving. However, it also depicts the hope and redemptive love that can come from the bond between father and son relationship, intense, devoted, self-sacrificing. They are referred as the good guys who will not succumb to immortality on their journey south, whatever happens. After the father’s death, the boy who always holds a metaphoric fire is to found by a family of four, the new “good guys,” and with them he can continue to carry the fire. The woman at the end of the book is positioned as a good mother. When she meets the boy, she provides immediate maternal care through enfolding him in her arms. She also talks to him about God. In the end, his spirit will rise above the devastation, representing the promise of resurrection in the aftermath of death’s finality.

As the main concept of Homi Bhabha’s postcolonialism, hybridity refers to the area on the borderline overlapping between contrary concepts such as white/black, colonizer/colonized, and west/east which was used to justify Western domination over the East. Hybridity is also presented as ‘in-between’ space, interstitial passage, and ‘beyond’ borderline in Bhabha’s postcolonialism and can have the role of resistance in such dichotomy focusing on the third space/area on the borderline. This study aims to probe into a variety of aspects of hybridity through character, space and so on in On Such a Full Sea. In this novel, the protagonist Fan is a symbol of hybridity as a resistant character who has free will and explores her own future and B-Mor is another symbol of hybridity as an ‘in-between’ space between ‘Charter’ and ‘open countries’. Furthermore, Changrae Lee presents various aspects of hybridity through time, geography, and a narrative voice. Through describing the resistance of hybridity, Lee suggests that individuals should recognize the ‘in-between’ spaces which can be the resistance area to break the dichotomy and the power of community of ‘individuals’ not a single ‘individual’.

This paper discusses the exclusive relationship between a mother and a son and the son’s mother fixation. Harold Pinter’s A Night Out seemingly appears to be a story of a widowed mother who is possessive of her impotent son trying to escape from her influence. The conflict between the mother and the son could be seen as the Pinter’s typical power game between male and female characters. Therefore, many critics focus on whether the power has moved to the son or not. However, I argue that we should go further into the background of the text. What lies underneath this mother-son relationship is negative effect of the male-dominated system which systematically locates women in the domestic sphere while men work for society and capitalist production. This perpetually generates sexual and familial division of labor and justifies women’s mothering and absence of the fathers at home. In this sense, the mother and the son turn out to be victims of the patriarchy and their exclusive relationship is the consequence of this women’s mothering causing the preoedipal mother-son relationship and the son’s difficulty to be separated from her to become an independent man. To support the idea that the play is not about the power but the gender problem, Nancy Chodorow’s concept will be used.

The purpose of this paper is to examine Africa as a place for Henderson’s maturity by applying Donald Winnicott’s object relations theory in Saul Bellow’s Henderson the Rain King. Winnicott argued that infants can form a creative and healthy self through the environment provided by ‘maternal preoccupation’ that their mothers make to them. He also explains that good environment allows an infant to escape from dependence to develop into an independent self and to have a realistic perception. Therefore, he says that an ‘intermediate area’ is needed for stable change into an independent self for the infant. Henderson is confused as a toddler for maturity. He is not adjusting to the problem of his reality. So he tries to escape from the repeating inner voice, which is one of his problems. However, the attempt worsens the relationship with the surrounding people. Henderson, the self-disjointed and alienated, chooses the journey to find the answer to the problem in his chaotic reality. The Africa he escaped to is a space of rest; namely, the ‘intermediate area.’ It is the place for his change and maturity proposed by Winnicott. Henderson experiences the reality through contact with various events and people here. And he finds a path for coexistence and matures himself as a noble life. Finally he awakens to his self and maturity through the experiences of transitional phenomena and transitional objects in Africa which is the ‘intermediate area.’

The purpose of this paper is to analyze control sentences under Survive-minimalism, following Stroik and Putnam (2013). Unlike the standard Minimalism, LEX, NUM, and CS are located within the CI and SM performance system in Survive-minimalism. It is also assumed that only Copy operation is used to build a syntactic structure in Survive-minimalism instead of External and Internal Merge. In addition, the derivation begins and proceeds by a Feature Matrix, which is a set of hierarchically structured features. A subject control clause is analyzed in this paper in a Survive-minimalism manner. CASE feature of the embedded subject is somewhat complicated since the subject of the control clause is not pronounced unlike canonical subjects even if it has semantic interpretation. By dividing tense-heads into three categories and assuming control infinitival tense-head has a weak CASE-selecting feature, control clause could quite successfully be analyzed under Survive-minimalism.

A primary stress is positioned within the rightmost three-syllable windows in English. Antepenultimate, penultimate, and final stresses are equally distributed on the surface. Word stress patterns are different according to parts of speech, that is, noun and suffixed adjectives have antepenultimate or penultimate stress, and verbs and simple adjectives have penultimate or final. Extrametricality and catalexis are an opposite concept in metrical theory. Consonantal and syllable are in the peripheral position and ignore in metrifying and counting the foot. But zero syllable or null vowel can be added to supplement the word final. Extrametricaly and catalexis correspond with NF and FILL constraints respectively in OT, which are used to integrate into a unified constraint ranking schema. All major categories are likely to satisfy three-syllable windows by means of NF and FILL constraints.

This study examined Mandarin Chinese-speaking learners’ production of English RCs to probe whether they show the same asymmetry patterns as native English speakers do. The study reduplicated Kim & O’Grady’s (2016) elicited production task and focused on comparing subject relatives with indirect object relatives and comparing direct object relatives with oblique relatives. Forty college students participants were divided into two groups depending on their proficiency and the results showed that it was much easier for MC-speaking learners to produce subject relatives than indirect object relatives. However, it was difficult for them to produce both direct object and oblique relative clauses, especially for the low intermediate proficiency group. Furthermore, oblique relative clauses were more challenging for both L2 groups. The results almost conformed to Kim & O’Grady’s (2016) findings: native English speakers were more likely to produce subject relatives than indirect object relatives and both direct object and oblique relatives were difficult for children (not adults) to produce.

This article accounts for various factors triggering /h/-dropping in the word-initial consonant clusters hr-, hl-, and hn- such as ease of articulation, acoustic and auditory weakness, universal preference (CV syllable structure), and French influence (no word-initial /h/). It also provides a constraint-based account of the developmental process of /h/-dropping, assuming that /h/-dropping would have happened under the scenario on the basis of the interaction of bottom-up and top-down processing in speech perception. /h/-dropping in consonant clusters seems to have proceeded like this: [hr], [hl], [hn] > [hr]∼[r̥], [hl]∼[l̥], [hn]∼[n̥] > [r̥]∼[r], [l̥]∼[l], [n̥]∼[n] > [r], [l], [n]. In analyzing these diachronic sound changes, I have presented two markedness constraints (*SONvl and *[+s.g., +glottal]) and two faithfulness constraints (DEP-IO and MAX-IO). The diachronic changes could reasonably be accounted for through four stages. The constraint ranking of the first stage is DEP-IO, MAX-IO, *SONvl >> *[+s.g., +glottal], that of the second stage is DEP-IO, MAX-IO >>>> *SONvl, *[+s.g., +glottal], that of the third stage is DEP-IO, *[+s.g., +glottal] >>>> *SONvl, MAX-IO, and that of the last stage is DEP-IO, *[+s.g., +glottal], *SONvl >> MAX-IO.

Following Park (2017)’s seminal research on the types of the Google translator’s translation errors, this research aims at providing an in-depth analysis of the Google translator’s patterns in translating sentences with syntactic or semantic ambiguities. The specific goals of this study are three-fold. First, based upon the previous study of Park (2017), this study attempts to address, in details, how the presence of a negative adverb ahn affects the translation of DPs with conjuncted embedded CPs or vPs. Second, how the Google translator perceives how a DP + ka functions syntactically when the pair appears in sentences with embedded clauses or TPs will be investigated. Lastly, this study also attempts to investigate how the Google translator translates sentences involving an element that moves over multiple embedded CP layers. Data from various sources were used. The findings of the data analysis show that Korean negative marker ahn affects the Google’s perception and translation of sentences with embedded CPs or vPs and that a DP + ka which appears in sentences with an embedded CP or TP is perceived to be either the subject of a matrix verb or that of an embedded clause or an embedded TP.

Korean front vowels /ɛ/ and /æ/ have been merged in terms of F1 and F2 in young speakers’ speech. Regarding this recent phonetic merger, this study investigates production and perception of English vowel categories by native Korean speakers. The production and the perception experiments were conducted to examine the effects of native phonetic changes and the linguistic experience on the language competence in English. The production experiment reported that the amount of linguistic experience significantly affects the native-like articulations of English /ɛ/ and /æ/ in relation to the Korean /ɛ/-/æ/ merger. The inexperienced group failed to articulatorily distinguish English /ɛ/ and /æ/. In perception, the analysis showed a significant difference in perceptual accuracy for the experienced and the inexperienced group. The least successful perception was found in English /æ/ by the inexperienced group possibly due to the [low] feature-contrast in English front vowels. Therefore, this study found a significant effect of native phonetic merger on the L2 performance, which can differ depending on the amount of L2 experience.

This paper aims to investigate the decline and demise of the English BE perfect and to discuss the usage of English BE perfect relics in Present-day English (PE). Given the ambiguity or a heavy functional load of the construction BE plus a past participle, including BE perfect, the decline and demise of the BE perfect resulted from first, language strategy to avoid ambiguity, second, the avoidance of heavy functional load, and finally, counterfactuality, followed by the replacement of BE perfect by HAVE perfect. HAVE perfect almost completely dominated by the turn of the 19th century. Here, we find the change of the feature system of the BE perfect with the dropping of the feature [+UNACCUSATIVE], implying that the “old” unaccusative predicates, which took BE auxiliary, may take HAVE now. Another recent significant factor of the disappearance of the BE perfect is that when BE perfect had no distinctive functional load from HAVE perfect, it disappeared from the English language. The PE relics of the English BE perfect, like be gone, done, finished, changed, and so on, have their own distinctive functional load that is different from that of their HAVE perfects, respectively, indicated by syntactic-semantic features [±BEING] and [±STATIVITY].

This paper aims to provide an analysis of antecedent-contained deletion (ACD) which is compatible both with the copy theory of movement and with the cyclic Spell-Out hypothesis. For this, this paper revises Ding’s (2013) split relative clause account for ACD. The core of the revision is to assume that the relative clause containing the ellipsis site (RCE) is adjoined not to vP but to VP. This assumption is supported by three pieces of empirical evidence presented in Sato (2013). This paper’s proposal can account for the correlation between ACD and NPI, NP-contained ACD. Under this paper’s analysis, the RCE and the normal relative clause are differentiated with respect to the adjunction site. This phenomenon may be interpreted as the consequence of last resort. This paper has no explanation for Tiedeman’s puzzle. But we may find the possibility of its resolution in Chomsky’s (2004) afterthought account. Although this paper’s proposal is not perfect, ACD can be given a better explanation by it.

This paper argues that Grice’s theory can still explain metaphors if we make the following revisions. The first revision to make is that not only flouting maxims but also observing maxims should explain metaphors depending on different types of metaphors. Secondly, we should admit the fact that sufficiently rich contexts can obviate the need to calculate maxims to arrive at metaphorical meanings. These revisions can address why sometimes no processing differences are found between literal languages and metaphorical languages even though ordinarily it is the case that metaphorical languages take a longer time to process than literal languages. Furthermore, the proposal of this paper can explain why category mismatches are not the necessary condition to evoke metaphors. Claiming that there are ways to make Gricean approach to metaphors still work, this paper also discusses high linguistic values of Grice’s maxims in comparison to other attempts to reduce the maxims, such as Horn’s two principles and the relevance principle. This paper concludes that we need to give more credit to Grice’s work not only for metaphors per se but also for diversity of the system.

The purpose of this study was to analyse the writing activities included in the 3rd and 4th grade English textbooks written by five different lead authors and to draw implications for the teaching of English writing. Writing activities were categorized into letter, word, and phrase levels, and the activities in each level were analyzed in four different aspects: starting points, types of writing activities (controlled, guided and free writing), composition of the participants and integration of language skills. Major implications of the data analysis are that writing words and phrases should start earlier in some textbooks. Also, more guided and free writing activities need to be included in word-writing level and more free writing activities in phrase-writing level. In terms of participants composition, more pair work or group work in word- and phrase-writing could make the writing activities more dynamic and motivating. Lastly, it was found that phrase-writing should be dealt with more frequently to meet the achievement goals of the 3rd and 4th grade writing. It is recommended that English teachers modify writing activities in textbooks for their actual teaching based on the suggestions made in the present study.

The study investigates Korean EFL students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards World Englishes and perceptions regarding grammatical features found in World Englishes. For the purposes, a self-report questionnaire was completed by 62 college students and 41 secondary school English teachers in Korea. Four factors were extracted: (1) Preference of Learning Standard English; (2) Awareness of Different English Varieties; (3) Perception of Linguistic Features of World Englishes; and (4) Recognition of the Value of World Englishes. While both students and teachers endorsed the role of World Englishes in international communication, they still preferred having teachers who speak standard English. Whereas teachers were better aware of World Englishes and slightly more positive towards them, students were more concerned about the grammatical variations found in World Englishes. Although students’ academic years or teachers’ length of field experience did not significantly influence their attitudes, overseas experience was positively related to their awareness of World Englishes. Findings suggest that Korean ELT circles should have teachers and students better informed of the value and features of World Englishes to help them adequately prepared for authentic intercultural communication.

The study investigated language anxiety of Korean college students when they spoke with NSs and FSs in an English clinic center. The research questions were constructed as follows; 1) How much were those students anxious when they spoke with NSs and FSs in the center? 2) In terms of students’ English proficiency, were there any differences? 3) What were the characteristics of those students’ language anxiety in the center? Seventy-eight college students participated in the survey, and six of them volunteered for the in-depth interview. Independent sample t-tests and ANOVA were used to analyze data, and McCracken’s (1988) analytic process was used for analysis of qualitative data. Results of data analysis showed that Korean college students in the center did not show differences in language anxiety when they communicated with NSs and FSs and no difference either towards both groups by the participants’ English proficiency levels. The participants’ language anxiety and their English proficiency and self-perceived English proficiency showed negative relation. Participants’ language anxiety was due to the individual differences not because of the differences toward native speakers or foreign students. Suggestions for further study and implications are presented as well.