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The wh-questions formation has been studied typologically across various languages. Within the Principle and Parameter (P&P) by Chomsky (1981), it has long been suggested that wh-phrases licences the relation to some clause-peripheral Xo positions referred to as a C[+Q]. In many languages, this type of obligatory dependency is analysed as movement between the position in which a wh-phrase is understood to be base-generated and the Spec of the C. In some languages, like Chinese and Japanese, wh-phrases do not have to be moved in overt syntax. Also, other languages do not move the wh-phrases into Spec of the C, but the position to the left of V. Jayaseelan (2004) argues that in some languages, wh-phrases are moved into the Spec of a Focus Phrase immediately above vP, which is the TP-Internal Focus position. Accordingly, I propose a TP-Internal Focus Probe in Korean wh-questions. Since Korean wh-phrases sometimes undergo wh-movement and whereas they sometimes stay in-situ, focus probe ([-Focus]) enters into Agree only with wh-phrases containing [+Focus] features, which is its goal. Then, it fulfills Probe-Goal Union (PGU) and as a result, it demonstrates that only wh-phrases with [+Focus] features undergo wh-movement in Korean.

The purpose of this paper is to show that the metaphoric systems of the Self can be found in English and Korean. Following Lakoff and his colleagues, it is shown that a person is separated into two parts: the subjective aspect of a person is called the Subject and the objective aspect is called the Self, and that as we think and talk, mental spaces are set up, structured, and linked under pressure from grammar, context, and culture, and it is shown that the difference between “If I were you, I’d hate me.” and “If I were you, I’d hate myself.” can be explained effectively by using the conception of Subject and Self and the theory of Mental Spaces proposed by Fauconnier (1994). Moreover it is shown that the system can be found in English and Korean. I provide examples of the five primary metaphors for both English and Korean—PHYSICAL-OBJECT metaphor, LOCATIONAL SELF metaphor, SOCIAL SELF metaphor, MULTIPLE SELVES metaphor, ESSENTIAL SELF metaphor. Moreover, the English examples translate readily into Korean, and that indicates that the system is not alien to speakers of Korean either. The English examples are from Lakoff and Johnson (1999). These shared examples suggested that English and Korean talk about and conceptualize the notion of self in surprisingly similar ways.

This thesis aims to analyse Joseph Conrad's Under Western Eyes, focusing that this text reveals both revolutionist’s contradiction obsessed with ideology and absolutist’s corruption trapped in indolence and rigidity in Russia with the rhetorics of the author’s unique irony. Under Western Eyes written in 1911, is considered to be one of Conrad’s major works and emphasizes conflict, deception, and betrayal about the historical failures of revolutionary ideals. Throughout developing this course, Conrad informs us how much self-deception of language and self-predicament of revolution exist everywhere in life, comparing various revolutionists taking charge of revolutional duty with ambiguous English narrator depicting tyrannical Russian revolutionists. This novel, furthermore explores that every truth already contains absurdity of self-predicament and self-hypocrisy through this novel’s all sorts of characters, including an anonymous English narrator. Among them, it is main character, Razumov that is caught in dilemma, and has troubles and difficulties between a contradictory doctrine and autocracy. In the course of unfolding views and ideals of Razumov who is placed in complicated conditions that suspected of betrayer afterwards, an old teacher of languages, the narrator confesses the limit languages have. This is also an important subject conrad wanted to emphasize enthusiastically, related with language and representation. Eventually, Razumov’s torment caused by his betrayal is fortunately developed into profound inner awakening. Throughout this course of main character, Razumov’s disillusion reminds us that Under Western Eyes quests human’s real nature, the problem of morality and ideology. It is estimated that this is a main theme Conrad intended to depict ultimately.

In this study evidence is presented for the effectiveness of tracking to improve EFL learners’ speaking competency. EFL speaking fluency can be assessed in various aspects, among which we focus on pronunciation (in particular, suprasegmental features). We used the tracking technique by which the subjects listen to a recorded material and repeat it modeling the native speaker’s pronunciation in every aspect. We hypothesized that tracking could help learners improve the naturalness of their pronunciation, which can be analyzed in terms of the key factors such as general impression, segmental pronunciation, stress/intonation, speech rate, and thought group. The experimental group of Korean adult EFL learners were required to do nine tracking tasks during one semester, and three native English teachers evaluated the subjects’ speaking, focusing on their pronunciation. Both the experimental group and the control group took a pretest and a posttest, and the results were compared through statistical analyses. We found that the experimental group of Korean adult EFL learners significantly outperformed the control group in the key factors of pronunciation. We argue that tracking is a verified and desirable method to improve EFL speaking fluency.

This article aims to study the narrative characteristics of Flannery O’Connor’s first novel, Wise Blood in the Bakhtinian perspective. She believed that the Church was shepherding its congregation wrongly by neglecting its duties for them in mannerism, and so that it must better guide better many Christians making big mistakes by reforming its system. As a convinced catholic, O’Connor thought such reform came from a change in an individual’s perception, and tried to enable her readers to recognize what the errors of the Church are like. For this reason, she selects some imageries representing something noble, spiritual, transcendent and divine, and combines them with imageries expressing something low, physical, animalistic or worldly, which makes her readers rethink what the problems of Christian values and hierarchies are, and also lets them reflect on what their own mistakes are as Christians. In Bakhtin’s point of view, this is reflected in the concept of ‘degradation,’ common in the Rabelaisian carnival-grotesque narrative. As a result, this mixture of oppositional and heterogeneous imageries creates a more grotesque and comic narrative. Especially, O’Connor’s stylistic parody, which has a strong background of public culture, increases both her novels’ comicality and grotesqueness. Actually, she makes this novel a more popular and festive by her parody of common ideologies the readers know well. In conclusion, O’Connor succeeds in drawing her readers’ more active response as well as mitigating their negative response originating from the criticism of Christianity. In this respect, her grotesque narrative is carnivalesque.

Chomsky started his linguistic research with an attack on empiricism (behaviorism) based on rationalism. Chomsky (2010; 2011) assumes UG consists of external and internal Merge. However, this UG, he assumes, developed suddenly through the process of mutation(s), which is empiricism in the sense that he comes to deny the boundary of species. The case of Archaeopteryx is a disaster to Chomsky’s assumption of the evolution across the species in that the case of Archaeopteryx is not the evidence of the species-crossing evolution. To explain language acquisition(growth), especially in feral children, he must have assumed two conflicting mutation(s) about UG, individual, and at the same time group mutation(s). Chomsky (2010: 19) assumed individual mutation, and Chomsky (2010: 20), contradictory to his former statement, assumed group mutation(s). I rather propose, to explain language, instead of Chomsky’s assumptions, Behe’s (1996:39) irreducible complexity and Dembski’s (1999:47) specified complexity based on intelligent design. Language is just a good example of irreducible complexity and specified complexity, showing the working together of speech anatomy and Chomsky’s internal system, which together consist of language faculty (the internal system, the sensory motor system, and externalization).

The poems of G. M. Hopkins and Ted Hughes are good examples of poetic expression of the primitivism. At first, we can read every creature is wriggling and moving endlessly, as vitality of lives, in Hopkins’ poems. His living things are dynamic and full of energy and, strangely, his poems are telling not female but only male. Even those males are not aristocratic or intelligent people but low classed physical workers whose bodies are strong and muscular. This can be understood as Hopkins loves a kind of primitive health which is not decayed from the complicated civilization. In Ted Hughes’ poems, we can also find the similar dynamic movements in which his animals are very impressive. He likes to express the animals in their movement, energetically and endlessly. The horse, badge, jaguar and even thistle are good examples which represent the primitive energy of nature. This is telling his preference for the primitivity, which is similar to Hopkins. These two poets are naturalists and Romantists, who loves the beautiful nature of Britain island, that of Yorkshire for Ted Hughes, Wales for Hopkins. They could not be satisfied in only looking at it but tried to feel it with all their senses.

William Shakespeare had an interest in narrating the visual arts or objects throughout his different genres from narrative poems such as Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, and early plays, The Taming of the Shrew and Timon of Athens to romance plays, Cymbeline and The Winter’s Tale. This paper explores the complex relationship between verbal and visual modes of representation in Shakespeare’s ekphrastic descriptions in Hamlet and primarily focuses on the importance of narrating the visual. Significantly, Hamlet presents Shakespeare’s fascination with vivid narration. Shakespeare often describes absent scenes or offstage events through his characters’ recounting, and he also chooses not visual but verbal representation in describing the important events which are worth emphasizing in Hamlet. In other words, many scenes including the murder of Old Hamlet, Hamlet’s enigmatic encounter with Ophelia, and Ophelia’s drowning are narrated rather than staged. The narrated moments highlight Shakespeare’s ekphrasis and create the visuality of language, a speaking picture. Fascinated by the ability of words to create images, Shakespeare makes us(audience and readers) see invisible things and actual events in his vivid descriptions. In Hamlet, especially, the emphasis upon descriptive vividness is found in the Player’s speech and Hamlet’s second soliloquy. Player’s speech raises several complex questions regarding the relationship between narrative and drama. As a literary dramatist, although Shakespeare seems to prioritize dramatic and visual immediacy above verbal narratives, he suggests that we rather count on narrative about what we can’t see, and even what we can see. Eventually, Shakespeare stubbornly shows his interest in the relationship between visual and verbal modes of representation and blurs the distinction between them throughout Hamlet.

The purpose of this study is twofold. First, the study looks into the changing research topics in primary English reading and finds out what topics remain scarce to be explored by reviewing the existing studies on primary English reading. Second, following findings from the review of studies, it proposes three alternative readings for aesthetic and critical reading in English. For research review, the journal of Primary English Education was searched using key words such as ‘reader,’ ‘reading,’ ‘story,’ and ‘literature,’ and 26 studies were selected and examined. The review of the existing 26 studies indicates that reading methods and linguistic subskills of reading have been studied the most while very few studies have been conducted focusing on aesthetic and critical reading. The study promotes the idea that reading, L1 or L2, comprises both the lower-level processing and the higher-level processing. However, research findings indicate that reading research in primary English has been the lower-level oriented. To this end, some alternative readings such as juxtaposed reading and reading non-stereotypical stories are suggested as a stepping stone to expand the scope of teaching primary English reading.

Unlike the anaphor in the embedded non-subject position, the anaphor in the embedded subject position cannot be long-distance bound to the higher object or dative argument. The pronoun in the embedded subject position can be freely coindexed with any higher arguments such as a subject, object or dative argument across the clause boundary. On the other hand, the embedded null subject position in Korean, which is pro, can alternate with the anaphor only when the controller is a higher subject. In Korean, control is triggered by factors such as the semantics of the controlling predicate. Not only pro but also other lexical NP can appear in the null argument position. The long-distance anaphor caki ‘self’ can only be substituted for an embedded controlled null subject in the cases of the higher subject controller. The higher dative topichood doesn’t make an impact on the interpretation of the anaphor. More important, the subject of the secondary predicates of the resultative sentence, the imperative construction and the lower non-finite clause of seltukha ‘persuade’ sentences is typically a null argument (i.e., pro), which can freely alternate with the pronoun coindexed with the higher controller or an arbitrary pronoun, but not with the anaphor. As a result, it follows that a subject is the strongest trigger for anaphor binding of the lower subject across the clause boundary.

It is well known that native speakers of English systematically reduce consonant clusters appearing in word-final position (e.g., next class → [nɛks klæs], Yavaş, 2006). A number of previous studies based on Korean speakers’ English word reading task have reported that to some extent Korean learners of English are aware of the linguistic variables that affect native speakers’ reduction patterns of word-final consonant clusters (e.g., Lee & Cho, 2005). The goal of the current study is to examine to what extent the previously reported patterns of consonant cluster reduction by Korean learners of English in their reading task are found when they interact with a native speaker of English in a spontaneous communicative setting. Using a spot-the-difference method (Kim et al., 2011), the present study shows that Korean speakers’ patterns of English consonant cluster reduction revealed in their reading task are not always consistent with the patterns gathered in their spontaneous English speech. In particular, unlike the results from previous studies, longer consonant clusters (i.e., clusters made up of three consonants) did not show a higher rate of reduction than shorter consonant clusters (i.e., clusters made up of two consonants). Discussions are provided regarding the factors that are potentially responsible for this discrepancy. More generally, discussions are provided regarding the effect of spontaneous speech on the word-final consonant cluster reduction by Korean learners of English.

This paper deals with semantic structure and argument structure in psychological verbs. They can be defined as verbs describing psychological or mental state of animate beings. Since psychological verbs show the phenomena related to meaning, it is difficult to describe and explain them in terms of syntactic structure. Postal (1971) points out that the structural approach cannot explain the active-passive pairs in psychological verbs. Levin (1993) classifies psychological verbs in regard to argument structure. She presents four types: amuse verbs, admire verbs, marvel verbs, and appeal verbs. Amuse and admire verbs belong to transitive verbs, whereas marvel and appeal verbs intransitive verbs. Croft (1991) suggests causativity relation to explain semantic structure in psychological verbs. He represents amuse verbs as causal chain, and admire verbs as direct causal state. Psychological verbs assign Experiencer and Theme to argument structure. In syntactic realization, Experiencer can appear as subject or object, and also Theme as subject or object. This means that mismatch occurs between argument structure and syntactic structure. In order to handle it, Grimshaw (1990) proposes thematic hierarchy and causal hierarchy. Belletti & Rizzi (1988) explain the mismatch appearing in psychological verbs in Italian. They argue that according to Burzio’s (1986) generalization, Theme can be moved to subject position. Grimshaw and Belletti & Rizzi show that it is adequate to analyze the phenomena occurring in psychological verbs in terms of argument structure based on meaning.

This study intends to analyze the influence of William James’s psychology in Henry James’s theory of consciousness and to elucidate its phenomenological meanings. Also, this analysis refers to Merleau- Ponty’s theory in so far as all phenomenological concepts start from it. Merleau-Ponty argues that the subject and the object are not separated but entangled with each other as the body. First of all, his flesh notion is the invisible physical character which is located between the visible and the invisible, the touchable and the untouchable, and is the mixture, crossing or infiltration of these two characters. In the same way, the structure of The Golden Bowl is grounded in a similar vision of human consciousness insofar as Maggie begins her respective adventures by evading the limits that bind her. At the last part of the novel, she accepts her responsibility for her mistaken choice. She can arrive at a transcendental apprehension with the phenomenological reduction to the thing itself after being exposed to different people. It suggests that his later works begin to pay attention to object itself. Or, more precisely, we can see Henry James’s interest shift from on the human-centered to on the object-centered.

This study analyzed the narrative method employed in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Ursula Le Guin’s The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas in terms of Homo Narrans, which means human beings telling stories. Homo Narrans, named by John D. Niles, can be meant that only humans make and listen to stories. When the homo narrans delivers his or her story, the rhetoric of storytelling is very important. To do this, Shelley uses speech-like writing which is effective measures in expressing emotion and forming harmonious communion with others and Le Guin induces readers an ur-story to draw readers response. In Frankenstein each homo narrans uses his voice and gesture rather than logic and reason to keep telling his story. This way of writing in the form of speaking is very close to the feminine writing. Through this narrative structure, the desire of one homo narrans is transferred to that of the other in the different narration. On the other hand, Le Guin’s storytelling, based on an ur-story, uses more complex narrative structure by making a story with readers. Unlike the traditional form of writing novels, there is no distinction between narrators and readers. So it can help produce tons of stories if the narrators or readers so wish to. With this rhetoric Le Guin warns people against utilitarianism intentionally. Homo Narrans functions as a key role to deliver the topic of the stories. With homo narrans’ first-person narrations, the self-in- relations writing in the two novels arouse reader’s sympathy more easily than male dominated writing.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the Experiencer Objects of the English Psych Verbs. There are two constructions which show the crossover between two thematic roles: one is the Locative Inversion Construction(LIC). The other is the Experiencer Object Psych Verbs Construction(EO-PVC). In this study, I assume that EO is another locative PP in LIC because the preposition P has [Loc] features which contain a mental location. So the EO-PVC can be called the expanded LF-LIC. Specifically, I follow Landau (2010)’s “quirky experiencers” and the basic assumptions: According to QSP, the preposition in the locative PP has a null case, “φ” in English. Just as the PP in LIC is overtly moved to the [Spec, TP] at S-Structure, so the experiencer PP in EO-PVC is covertly moved to the [Spec-TP] at LF. As a result, both constructions have the multiple specifiers. But in the former the inversion is obligatory and the subject is topicalized, but in the latter this is not the case. That’s because the LF-movement is a covert movement which is not related to the discourse function. This analysis of EO as an LF-subject help to solve the puzzles such as adjunct control, backward binding, and scope readings.

There has been a lengthy discussion concerning the idea that anxiety interferes with or diminishes the capacity for second language learning. Those included in the discussion are scholars, researchers, instructors, and L2 learners themselves. At issue is the question of how significant the influence of anxiety on inhibiting language learning really is. This article explores second language acquisition and discusses the implications related to ‘anxiety’. While the concept of anxiety is multi-faceted, the main area of interest for researchers and practitioners alike focuses on how anxiety actually influences language learning. Numerous types of anxiety have been identified including state anxiety, trait anxiety, situation-specific anxiety, and achievement anxiety just to name a few. Many have theorized that it is the wide variety of anxiety-types that is partly to blame for the mixed and confusing results of research done on this topic. Scovel (1978) states that anxiety is “not a simple, unitary construct that can be comfortably quantified into ‘high’ or ‘low’ amounts” (p. 137). Typically language anxiety or foreign language anxiety (FLA) is categorized as a situation-specific anxiety (Ellis, 1994), similar in type to other familiar manifestations of anxiety such as stage fright or test anxiety.