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When we want to communicate with one another, we are apt to use economical forms in language. In other words, we like economical forms in spellings and pronunciations, for it is broadly true that 'Economy of Speech' is human instinct. As a child he learns English, but he prefers economical pronunciations to extravagant ones. It is even easier for him to make an economical pronunciation in his organs of speech. So it is natural that he often makes such economical errors in learning English. As a child makes such an economical error in learning English, so many Black Americans do in speaking English. But child English and Black English are different from each other in economical English. Many ecnomical expressions in Black English prevails in American folk songs, poetry, hymns and pop musics. Children learn English better and better through their phonological errors, therefore the more errors they make, the more progresses they do. There is no shame in English learners' errors, for they can be fluent speakers through such errors as phonological ones. In English there are some economical expressions, and economical or extravagant expression depends on what we select. Therefore, incessant training we always need, for training is the only choice and language is beautiful.

This article explores the exact meaning of "ergative" which has been used differently by many linguists. As the purpose of Chomskyan generative-grammar and the recent minimalist program is to develop the Universal Grammar for all types of languages in the world, it is very essential to define the exact meaning of "ergative". Moreover, as there exist the mixed systems of Erg/Abs and Nom/Acc such as Kartvelian and Dyirbal, it is more important to make the meaning of the ergative clear. In this article we propose that the Exceptional Case Marking constructions and the "force-type verbs" constructions in English show the syntactic ergativity. These sentences have ergative syntax working in terms of an S/O pivot. For these sentences two clauses may only be joined in a coordinate structure if they share an NP which is in S or O function in each clause. In discussing the ergativity, we could define English as having syntactic ergativity. Some may assert that English does not have ergativity. But it could be too rash to conclude that English has no ergativity. We only need some more time to find out new English syntactic ergative constructions which have been unknown to us.

동양철학을 깊이 천착했던 쇼펜하우어의 영향을 크게 받은 작가 중의 한 사람이었던 토마스 하아디는 그의 소설 ꡔ비운의 쥬드ꡕ에서 19세기 말 영국의 기독교 사회와 이원론적인 가치체계를 비판하면서 헤브라이즘에 대응하는 헬레니즘과 스윈번의 이교주의는 물론 “이상주의적인 일원론”(idealistic monism)의 구축을 시도한다. 그의 일원론은 심미적인 “생성”세계로서 윤리적인 “존재”세계의 특성을 갖는 플라톤-기독교적인 이원론과 억압적인 가부장제를 해체하며 몸에 대한 새로운 인식론을 제기한다. 하아디는 이 작품의 서두를 역사적 뿌리로부터 차단되고 문화의 기원에 대한 모든 인식이 상실된 마을의 묘사로 시작한다. 그는 첫 장면에서 신은 자연의 생성과정에서 더 이상 주재자가 아님을 제시함으로써 그의 일원론의 제 일차적인 특성을 신이 배제된 무신론적인 일원론이자 유기체적인 일원론으로 설정하며 이를 작품 전체의 토대로 삼는다. 작품의 바탕을 이루는 이러한 일원론은 플라톤과 기독교의 자연에 대한 오류적인 이원화 그리고 직선적 사유를 거부하는 순환적 사유로 나타나며 이는 남녀관계를 포함한 모든 이항 대립적 요소들을 상보적이고 유기적인 관계로 인식시킨다. 쥬드와 수우의 관계 역시 한 몸에서 나온 쌍둥이 신인 아폴로와 다이애너가 19세기 빅토리아조 영국에 나타난 현대적인 화신으로 서술된다. 또한 하아디는 그의 일원론적 사유 속에서 인간을 “호모 사피엔스”로 바라보던 전통적인 이성주의적 인간관에서 인간을 “느낌의 존재” (feeler)로, 즉 인간의 몸은 느낌의 체계이며 인간의 본성은 추하고 타락한 것이 아니라 고결한 것으로 파악하는 근원적인 인식의 전환을 불러일으킨다. 이를 위해 이 작품은 지속적으로 인간의 자연적 본능은 온전히 건강한 것이며 인간 몸의 소리는 훨씬 순수하고 정직한 것이라는 것을 실증해 보인다. 본능의 소리는 결국 세상에서 가장 구식의 인간인 필로스톤 조차 결혼과 결혼윤리에 대한 새로운 인식에 이르게 해서 남자 없이 여성과 아이들만으로도 가족의 단위가 될 수 있어야 한다는 급진적인 생각에까지 이르게 해 준다. 인간에 대한 새로운 인식과 함께 이 작품의 등장인물들은 이성적으로 판단하여 의지를 발동하고 최종적으로 그러한 행위를 수행키 위해 몸의 욕망을 억제하는 과정을 밟는 ‘이성에서 몸으로’ 진행하는 서구적 방식과는 달리 몸에서 이성으로 진행하는 ‘몸을 통한 깨달음’이라는 방식을 통해 사회적 안목을 확대해 감을 보여준다. 이러한 몸의 인식은 하아디로 하여금 남녀간의 “성적인 사랑”을 통한 유기적 결합은 도덕과 종교적 도그마가 가져다 줄 수 없는 자기인식으로 가는 길이며 따라서 대학 졸업생이나 목사 혹은 교구사제가 되느니 한 여성을 사랑하는 편이 훨씬 낫다는 주장을 가능케 해준다. 이러한 맥락에서 볼 때 사회적 혼란은 인간의 본능 때문이 아니라 순전히 문명의 인위적 산물이라는 하아디의 주장은 설득력을 지닌다. 자연을 유기적 전체로 보는 그의 통합적인 심미적 사유 속에서는 세상은 모든 요소의 동시적 참여에 의해 이루어져 가는 것이며 따라서 기독교 문화 저변에 놓여 있는 모든 이원적 사유와 저열한 배타성은 철저히 거부된다. 인간을 느낌의 존재로 보는 하아디에게 있어서는 이성이란 느낌의 일부일 뿐이며 ‘순수이성’과 ‘실천이성’은 분리되지 않는다. 쥬드가 결국 크리스트민스터로 되돌아오는 것은 그의 깨달음의 사회적 실천행위로서 진리와 숭고한 이상은 사회적 실천으로 옮겨져야 한다고 보는 하아디의 사유 속에서는 당연한 귀결로 나타난다. 하아디의 생성적 일원론은 결국 사회적 구원을 위한 반기독교주의이며 기쁨과 행복이 위를 향하는 게 아니라 바로 “지금-여기”로 향하는 무신론적인 휴머니즘이다.

Buried Child is one of Sam Shepard's ‘family trilogy,’ that offer surrealistic depictions of the dysfunctional American family. Shepard's central concern involves codes and their loss in modern American family. One of the most problematic aspects of Shepard's play is his viewpoint remains predominantly patriarchal. Shepard consistently does create female characters who are frequently abused, and always treated as subservient to men, and absorbed in simple activities and simplistic thoughts. Though women in Shepard's world are often victims, they are also more skilled than their oppressors in survival strategies. In Buried Child mother figure Halie's mythic-symbolic significance resists the one-sided male perspective in the play. While Shelly, the outsider, tries to violate the structure of the Dodge family which is held together by maintaining the secretㅡthe combination of infanticide and incest, all the characters of the family want their secret to remain concealed. Especially, it is one major decisive trait for Halie to keep from revealing the family's mysterious secret, for the secret of the family involves her. Throughout the play Halie abuses her husband Dodge, who is sick and helpless on the sofa, and regards the half-wit Tilden and the threatening amputee Bradley as two dysfunctional sons. On the other hand, she rewrites herself as the tragic mother, weeping for her cruelly murdered son, Ansel, by describing him in a heroic fashion to compensate for his death. After Vince, the symbolic incarnation of ‘buried child,’ enters the stage, invading the initial naturalistic setting, the play gradually reveals its ritual quality. It is clear that a kind of heroic vacuum, which paralyzes the family, will soon be filled by Vince, when he claims his inheritance after Dodge's death by the end of the play. Like the House of Oedipus, the family of Dodge is cursed by the combined acts of overrating blood relation in Tilden's incest with Halie and underrating one in Dodge's infanticide. Shepard has Vince's rebirth reconcile these antithesis, and links the mother and son with agrarian rituals as Tilden slowly climbs the stairs to deliver the skeleton of an infant wrapped in a muddy cloth to its mother at the final scene of the play. Despite the subversion of the Good Mother archetype and her contradictory nature, Halie is the figure of authority. While the patriarch is only a figure of frail but inexorable despotism, Halie, as the domineering, judgmental manipulator of all the characters in the play, asserts her motherly power. Her super-objective is to restore order in her home for a fresh start and a new beginning. Not only the mysteries and contradictions but also tantalizing allusions to death, decay, and family violence in the play seem to accumulate to form a unnerving sense of doom. Yet Buried Child does not display a tragic inevitability in the collapse of the family, for Shepard underscores the importance of rites of passage within families to reaffirm the family's continuing significance.

This paper investigates the issue of multiple styles or techniques employed in Joyce's Ulysses in terms of postmodernist literary perspective. As is well known, Ulysses, which is composed of eighteen episodes, has a different style per episode. Up to now, the various styles have been studied frequently, but Joyce's purpose of using them has not attracted much scholarly attention. The present article, an Odyssean journey into the text, is to explore the reason why he exercised such a chameleonic technique. The paper focuses on the examination of styles in text's latter half, because they are much more varied than those in its first half. This means that Joyce needed more and more freedom, as the text progresses, to demonstrate the reality as extensively as possible. Upon scrutiny, his various styles reflect Joyce's vision of relativity or uncertainty in life. Since it is impossible for a single mode of expression to carry all the complexities of life in full, Joyce exploited multiple techniques in order that he might reveal various aspects of reality. In this sense, his strategy of multiple styles is not extrinsic to a central meaning; rather, it creates the meanings in the text.

영국 역사상 정치, 사회적으로 급격한 전환기였던 17세기를 살았던 마아블의 시를 이해하기 위해서는 그 당시의 정치 문맥을 고찰함이 필요하다. 비록 “애플턴 저택”이 서정시로 쓰였을지라도 행간에는 당시의 정치상황이 상당히 풍자되어 있다. 즉 이 시는 “호라티우스 풍의 부”처럼 분열된 사회의 서정시인의 정치적 입장을 간접적으로 표현한다. 그 중 대표적인 것이 대상에 대한 아이러니컬한 애증이며, 이를 위해서 마아블은 당시에 유행한 시의 전통을 패러디하여 그 속에서 권장되는 기존의 사회질서를 함께 전복하려는 급진파들의 시도의 위험성을 조롱하지만 역사의 대세는 인정한다. 마아블은 존슨의 “펜써스트 저택”에서 시작된 “시골의 지주저택을 소재로 한 시”(Country-House Poem)의 전통을 대체적으로 이어받으면서도 세부적으로는 상당한 각색을 가미한다. 존슨 시의 양식의 저변에는 후원자와 그의 저택에 대한 직접적인 칭찬, 은퇴생활의 즐거움, 중용의 미덕, 전원의 소박한 안락함 등이 주조를 이루었는데, 엄청난 사회적 변혁에 직접 참여했던 마아블로서는 이런 가치들을 한편으로는 동경하면서도 또 한편으로는 그대로 받아들이기는 어려웠기 때문이다. 표면적으로 보면 “애플턴 저택”이 의회군의 지도자로 활약하다 스코틀랜드 침공에 반대하여 은퇴한 페어팩스 장군의 요오크셔 저택의 아름다움과 그의 딸 메어리의 미덕을 찬양하기 때문에 시골 지주의 저택을 소재로 한 시에 속한다고 볼 수 있다. 그러나 실제로 자세히 분석해 보면, 마아블은 혁명의 소용돌이를 틈타서 귀족의 농지 소유권을 모든 평민들에게 돌려주어야 한다고 주장하는 급진적 청교도들(True Levellers)과 극단으로 치우치는 혁명의 위험성을 경고하는 페어팩스 장군 사이에서 심정적으로는 후자 쪽에 치우치면서도 확고한 의지 표명은 행간에 숨기고 있다. 요컨대, 타락 이전의 이상적 전원의 복구를 희구하여 시골 저택을 노래한 시들을 위협하는 급진파들의 전통적 가치의 전도에 대해서는 또 다른 패러디로 조롱하여 문학의 전통을 지키는 한편, 돌이킬 수 없는 현실 역사의 흐름을 인정하고 타협할 수밖에 없는 시인의 내면 갈등을 페어팩스의 정치적 결단력 부족에 대한 은근한 패러디로 함께 보여준다.

Norman Mailer's An American Dream and Saul Bellow's Mr. Sammler's Planet show polar views on the contemporary American Culture, while in common being concerned with the identity of modern man. Their heroes try to define the problems in the modern society and find the values with which they can endure the modern life. The modern culture is the reflection of the rapid technological development, which has brought not only material prosper but also spiritual hunger. In finding the solutions to the modern problems Mailer directed his way to the field of human instinct, negating the reason. Bellow, however, never gave up his belief in the reason of human being, which he think is over-developed and should be appropriated to keep the balance between human reason and instinct. Despite their differences in direction, both works have very similar narrative strategies and thematic concerns. Both heroes undergo a kind of religious pilgrims and tries to search for the common wisdom of human survival in this century. Their heroes, Sammler and Rojack, may be said to be alienated from the emptiness, but they attribute that emptiness to entirely different things. Rojack is disillusioned about powerful organizations. He insists on " the politics of social reconstruction being superceded by a politics of salvation." An American Dream is a version of that dream and shows a much more private vision. The hero undergoes a redemption by fancy and instinct. Meanwhile, Sammler is concerned with universal issues and is related to the world of which he is a part. He believes in the worth of the social contract and in the existence of the common good. In their narrative strategies, violence, sex and God are the common issues with which the two writers deals, showing the radically different stances. If Elya Gruner's aneurysm is a metaphor for the hidden violence Sammler fears in American life, cancer is the explicit metaphor for Rojack's perception of his country's sickness. Violence is seen by Rojack as the antidote to the cancer of conformity. For Mailer, the pursuit of spiritual fulfillment is best expressed by a sexual metaphor. Sex is something of a physical analogue for a spiritual reality. In contrast, Sammler believes that personal satisfaction should be postponed for long term pleasure, and that there exists a common good we human beings all share. With the pursuit of God, Rojack's quest is radically private, and for Bellow the truly religious goal is somehow to integrate this private self with the suffering public self. Thus Mailer's God is energy and his experience of God orgasm, while Bellow's God is mind, and his experience of it is to recognize others and unite with them. An American Dream shows Mailer's existential view of modern culture. Mailer seems to insist that in order to combat the evil, man must not only acknowledge but exploit and express the evil in himself. He tries to explore the human instinct where he think we can find the solutions to the modern problems: restrictions on the individual's freedom and his conformity to great institutions. Sex is another metaphor to see the character and role of modern woman. What he tries to show through the love of Rojack and Cherry is the harmony of man and woman. He seems to express his worries about the disappearance of differences in male and female in the modern society. On the other hand, Bellow remains firm that humanity must learn somehow to overcome the evil without acting it out. He accepts the animal aspects of human being, but never gives up the traditional belief in human reason and find out new values in the religious emotions which can be found intuitively. Therefore, the meaning of the individual's existence is gained through the battle for his identity with the means of courage and ability for Mailer, whereas for Bellow, it is gained through the belief in the human goodness and the contract with God. We find two approaches in Mailer's An American Dream and Bellow's Mr. Sammler's Planet: the existential view and the moralistic view of the modern man and his culture.

James never put his reader in a direct contact with his subjects; he believed it was impossible to do so, because his subjects were really not related to what happened but instead to what someone felt about what happened, and this could be directly known only through an intermediate intelligence. So I studied the structure of the dynamic interrelationships among the intermediate reflectors, including the narrator as an another character. In Wings, the reader sees the events through the eyes of the three principle centers; Kate, Milly and Densher. The voices of the narrator and the characters become a representation of multiple perspectives. Through a less-than-omniscient narrator, Kate's value becomes clear to the reader, so we couldn't see her as a woman with a tinge of the cold-blooded assassin despite being a conspirator. Through the Susan's consciousness a mere romantic view of Milly's situations can be seen. Susan judges and acknowledges Milly as a positively good person naming her as the princess. The narrative voice about Milly's thoughts is either silent or meager. As Milly functions as an absent center, what is written is dependent upon what is unwritten. Due to the functions of the mystified angelic figure, the fortune hunters cannot be regarded as abominable villains. Throughout in the novel, Densher never has an original idea, but develops, for the reader, both a reflector and an unreliable narrator. As his interchanging process is the main point, his meetings and reflections are more closely allied to the tension of the novel. Though the narrator plays a part to construct thoughts and feelings of the characters, his own narration ends up revealing vulnerability. For this fact, the reader can easily recognize the narrator's limitations of omniscience. But he pursues persuasion to convince the reader that a character's effect on him can be the same for the reader. In conclusion, the Jamesian text does not readily tell the facts. What is recorded are the effects the characters have on one another and on the narrator as well. It is the very narrative technique adopted in James' deployment of the epistemology of impressions, which creates the reader's response.