Earticle

Green mold disease caused by pathogenic Trichoderma spp. (such as T. aggressivum, T. harzianum, and T. pleurotum) is a major threat to the production of commercial mushrooms, including Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Lentinula edodes. Trichoderma spp. act as aggressive competitors and mycoparasites that rapidly colonize substrates, secrete cell walldegrading enzymes, and release toxic metabolites, severely inhibiting host mycelial growth and yield. This review summarizes current knowledge on the diversity, epidemiology, and cellular interaction mechanisms of pathogenic Trichoderma spp. in cultivated mushrooms. We also evaluate the existing control strategies, including substrate pasteurization, chemical fungicides, biocontrol agents, and resistance breeding. Future directions for advancing eco-friendly integrated pest management (IPM) frameworks for sustainable mushroom cultivation are discussed.

The mushroom cultivation industry is increasingly integrating agricultural and agro-industrial by-products as sustainable alternative substrates to mitigate reliance on traditional raw materials (e.g., hardwood sawdust and wheat straw) and address environmental concerns associated with agricultural waste management. Edible and medicinal mushrooms, through their specialized lignocellulolytic enzyme systems (including laccases, manganese peroxidases, and cellulases), possess the unique capability to bioconvert complex lignocellulosic biomass into nutrient-rich protein food sources. This review comprehensively examines the major categories of agricultural by-products—ranging from crop residues (cereal straws, corn cobs, sugarcane bagasse) and processing by-products (cottonseed hulls, beet pulp, soybean meal) to forestry residues—utilizable for commercial mushroom production. We analyze the critical physicochemical factors influencing bioconversion efficiency, including the Carbon-to-Nitrogen (C/N) ratio, substrate moisture, pH, porosity, and lignin-to-cellulose ratios. Strategies for optimizing biological efficiency (BE) and yield are systematically discussed, focusing on physical/chemical pre-treatments, optimal biological supplementation, and substrate formulation blending. Furthermore, recent research trends in Korea such as bottle culture substrate formulation for Pleurotus eryngii and Flammulina velutipes, energy-saving pasteurization techniques, and spent mushroom substrate (SMS) upcycling—are integrated alongside future perspectives on circular bioeconomy.

This study reviewed structural changes and competitiveness in Korea’s mushroom industry based on long-term trends in production, production value, trade, and distribution prices, and examined the medium- to long-term supply and demand outlook and emerging markets for mycelium-based materials and processed mushroom products. The cultivated area decreased from 3,870 ha in 2005 to 1,885 ha in 2024, while production remained relatively stable at 173,602 tons, indicating increased production efficiency per unit area. Oyster mushroom and king oyster mushroom accounted for 63.1% of total production in 2024, demonstrating a high concentration of production in a limited number of mushroom types. In 2025, mushroom imports increased to 98,268 tons, whereas exports declined to 12,780 tons, resulting in a persistent trade deficit. Distribution prices of major mushrooms showed different patterns across wholesale, retail, and eco-friendly markets; however, differences among these price indicators should not be interpreted directly as distribution margins or causal price transmission because the survey units, markets, and transaction conditions differed. The medium- to long-term outlook for shiitake indicates a decline in domestic production and increasing dependence on imports. In response to these structural changes, five strategic directions are proposed: developing cultivars and products differentiated according to domestic and export-market requirements; strengthening stable domestic production and supply systems for superior cultivars and completed substrates; developing medium-scale automation and process simplification technologies; standardizing distribution-price data and strengthening supply-and-demand monitoring; and expanding functional and high-value mushrooms, processed products, and mycelium-based materials. Mycelium-based materials have potential applications in leather alternatives, packaging, and biocomposites, but further technological development is required to improve production efficiency, biomass yield consistency, material standardization, and cost competitiveness. Overall, an integrated strategy linking cultivar development, production technology, distribution, processing, and export is needed to strengthen the long-term competitiveness and sustainability of Korea’s mushroom industry.

Wood-decay fungi cause severe damage to wood by degrading its major structural polymers, thereby reducing the durability and service life of wood products. In this study, the antimicrobial efficacy and biological safety of steam-exploded oak extract was evaluated as a candidate bio-based preservative against wood-decay fungi. Steam-exploded oak was extracted with 50% ethanol, and the resulting extract was applied to pine samples. Treated and untreated samples were exposed to Trametes versicolor (a white rot fungus) and Gloeophyllum trabeum (a brown rot fungus), respectively, for four weeks. After exposure to T. versicolor and G. trabeum, untreated pine samples had significant loss of mass of 41% and 36%, respectively,. In contrast, the extract-impregnated pine samples had marked reductions in loss of mass of 12% and 9%, respectively, demonstrating strong resistance to decay. The cellulase and ligninase of T. versicolor were reduced, and the cellulase activities of G. trabeum were also inhibited. In a cytotoxicity assessment using RAW264.7 macrophages, there was no significant decrease in cell viability, even at an extract concentration of 1,000 ppm. These results suggest that the extract from steam-exploded oak wood has potent antifungal activity against wood-decay fungi, and low cytotoxicity towards mammalian cells. Therefore, this extract can be used as a promising natural and environmentally friendly anti-fungal agent for the preservation of wood.

This study investigated the effects of red and blue LED light on mushroom growth to establish the optimum artificiallighting method for Pleurotus eryngii in a closed mushroom-factory system. Fresh weight, height, width, pileus chromaticity, and pileus hardness were measured to evaluate the effects of LED lighting on mushroom growth and quality. During cultivation, the humidity, temperature, and CO2 concentration were maintained above 90±5%, at 14–16oC, and at 1,000–1,500 ppm, respectively. Fresh weight and height were greater under red (650 nm, 74.3 μmol m⁻2 s⁻1) and green LED light (525 nm, 87.4 μmol m⁻2 s⁻1) than under blue LED light (450 nm, 108.0 μmol m⁻2 s⁻1). Red LED light at a photosynthetic photon flux density of 74.3 μmol m⁻2 s⁻1, applied in a 1-h on/off cycle, resulted in a marketable yield of 150 g. This represented a 13.6% increase over the control yield of 132 g under fluorescent lighting. The stipe length was 7.1 cm under blue light, which was shorter than the 9.6 cm recorded under red light.

Lead (Pb) contamination may limit the use of white-rot fungi for lignocellulose waste conversion; however, fungal growth, morphology, and extracellular enzyme systems may exhibit different responses to Pb stress. In this study, after culturing the Trametes versicolor KACC 44767 strain for 30 d, the physiological, structural, and enzymatic responses to nominal Pb concentrations of 0, 100, 200, and 300 mg/L were evaluated. Mycelial dry weight, color, and microstructure, as well as lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), β-glucosidase, and hemicellulase activities were analyzed. In addition, patterns according to treatment levels were analyzed using z-score heatmaps, hierarchical clustering, and exploratory Spearman correlation analysis. Dry weight decreased significantly from 216.1 ± 0.7 mg in the control group to 111.5 ± 1.1 mg after treatment with 300 mg/L Pb, representing a 48.4% decrease (Tukey’s honestly significant difference test, p < 0.05). The mycelial color changed from ivory to dark yellow. After treatment with 300 mg/L, the mycelial area ratio, branching, crossing, length, and aggregation increased, whereas porosity and pore size decreased compared to those of the control group. The enzymatic reactions were heterogeneous. LiP was maintained at up to 200 mg/L treatment and decreased at 300 mg/L, MnP peaked at 100 mg/L, hemicellulase peaked at 200 mg/L, and β-glucosidase decreased monotonically by 85.0% compared to the control group at 300 mg/L. Hierarchical clustering analysis revealed that the 100 and 200 mg/L treatment groups were the most closely grouped, whereas the 300 mg/L treatment group was isolated. Spearman correlation analysis showed inverse trends between Pb/color and dry weight/β-glucosidase depending on the treatment level. Overall, T. versicolor may retain the extracellular enzymatic potential associated with lignocellulose degradation under low-to-moderate Pb exposure, as indicated by the relative maintenance or induction of LiP, MnP, and hemicellulase activities. However, fungal growth and several types of enzyme activities were inhibited after high Pb exposure. Because substrate mass loss and compositional changes in lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose were not assessed, these results should not be interpreted as direct evidence of lignocellulose degradation.

This study evaluated the use of domestic agro-food by-products, namely coffee grounds, herbal medicinal residues, and confectionery residues, as alternatives to imported substrate materials for oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus’Heuktari’) cultivation. Among six advanced mixed substrates (T1-T6), the T1 substrate comprising 50% hardwood sawdust, 20% beet pulp, 10% cottonseed meal, and 20% coffee grounds (v/v) achieved the highest yield (224 g/1,100 cc) and biological efficiency (108%). Field trials at commercial farms in Yeoju and Yangpyeong confirmed no statistically significant differences (p>0.05) in morphological quality or yield between the T1 and conventional substrates. In contrast, herbal medicinal residues were unsuitable for direct use because water-soluble inhibitors suppressed mycelial and contaminant growth. In conclusion, domestic coffee grounds can successfully replace 20% of conventional nutrient sources, providing an economical and sustainable approach to reducing substrate costs while promoting resource circulation in the mushroom industry.

A novel high-yield variety of Grifola frondosa(maitake)—Damhyang—was developed by Gangwon Agricultural Research and Extension Services to enhance productivity and broaden utilization. The optimal conditions for mycelial culture, fruiting initiation, and growth were approximately 25, 20, and 18 °C, respectively, comparable to those of the control variety. Morphological characteristics were examined, and yield performance was assessed through productivity tests and farm validation trials. Damhyang exhibited distinctive traits, including upward-facing pileus margins and lightgray pileus color, differentiating it from the control. The appropriate incubation period was 70 days, with maturity reached after approximately 20 days after bag cutting, slightly later than that of the control. Despite the longer harvest period, yield increased by 12 % in the productivity tests and 16 % in the farm trials. The superior yield was attributed to the upwardoriented pileus margins; elongated clusters; and larger, thicker, and denser pileus. Compared with the previous highyielding variety (Dami), Damhyang exhibited significantly higher productivity. Damhyang is expected to be widely adopted as an edible mushroom and is a promising candidate for processing applications.

This study aimed to identify alternative raw materials capable of improving the physical and nutritional characteristics of substrates and maximizing productivity and functionality in response to the supply instability of beet pulp, a conventional supplement in Sparassis crispa cultivation. Various nutritional supplements (crushed corn, wheat bran, cottonseed hull, barley malt, pressed barley, and rice bran) were individually mixed with larch sawdust substrate to evaluate cultivation characteristics, yield, and β-glucan content. The pinheading period was 1 d across all treatments, except for the beet pulp single treatment (12 d) and cottonseed hull treatment (12 d). In terms of yield, the pressed barley treatment exhibited the best performance, with a fresh weight of 587 g and dry weight of 55.9 g, representing increases of 46.0% and 48.7%, respectively, compared with that of the control. The β-glucan content was significantly higher in the pressed barley (41.55%), beet pulp (41.25%), and barley malt (40.54%) treatments compared with that of the control (32.79%). Overall, although the conventional beet pulp single treatment accumulated high levels of β-glucan, limitations such as delayed pinheading and lower yield were observed. In contrast, the pressed barley treatment simultaneously achieved multiple advantages, including a short pinheading period, maximized yield, and high β-glucan accumulation. Therefore, supplementing larch sawdust substrate with pressed barley as a single additive is considered the optimal substrate formulation to effectively replace conventional beet pulp, shorten the total cultivation period, and enable the stable mass production of high-quality S. crispa.

This study evaluated the mycelial growth, cultivation characteristics, yield, and β-glucan content of five domestic Sparassis cultivars (‘Neowul’, ‘Hanyeoul’, ‘Summerqueen’, ‘Bargle’, and ‘Ksch2go’) to identify superior cultivars for farm cultivation and industrialization. Optimal mycelial growth occurred at 22–25 °C, whereas growth completely stopped at 31 °C. In bottle cultivation, larch-based substrate reduced cultivation days and increased yield compared to pine-based substrate. In larch-based bottle cultivation, ‘Hanyeoul’ had the shortest period (98 d), while ‘Neowul’ produced the same level of dry yield as ‘Hanyeoul’ (11.8 g compared to 11.1 g). In 2-kg bag cultivation on larch substrate, ‘Hanyeoul’, ‘Neowul’, and ‘Summerqueen’ matured in 85 d, 13–21 d faster than in bottle cultivation. In bag cultivation, dry yield was 49.3 g for ‘Hanyeoul’ and 44.7 g for ‘Neowul’, with no statistically significant difference. Notably, β-glucan content was higher in bag cultivation than in bottle cultivation, reaching 49.38% for ‘Hanyeoul’ and 46.53% for ‘Neowul’. This is attributed to cultivar superiority and substrate composition differences. Overall, ‘Neowul’ and ‘Hanyeoul’ are suitable cultivars for high-quality production owing to their shorter cultivation period, higher yield, and higher functionality compared with those of ‘Summerqueen’ and ‘Bargle’.

This study evaluated the physicochemical and functional properties of powders from three edible mushrooms (Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Hericium erinaceus) according to particle size, aiming to determine their applicability as plant-based minced meat analogs. Color and salinity analysis revealed that P. eryngii powder possessed the highest lightness (L* 86–88) and the lowest salinity (1.7–1.8%), offering high flexibility in formulation. In contrast, P. ostreatus coarse powder exhibited a very dark color (L* 19), and H. erinaceus showed higher salinity (3.97–4.40%) and moisture content. Water holding capacity (WHC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) were significantly higher in coarse powders (40–80 mesh) than in fine powders (4–8 mesh) across all species, with H. erinaceus coarse powder exhibiting the highest values, suggesting its potential to enhance flavor and Maillard reaction. Texture profile analysis (TPA) of the reconstituted particle-type analogs demonstrated that P. eryngii coarse powder yielded the highest gumminess and chewiness, making it the most suitable matrix for mimicking the texture of real minced meat. Conversely, P. ostreatus powder exhibited poor binding capacity and lowest TPA parameters, proving unsuitable as a structural builder. In conclusion, combining P. eryngii coarse powder as a primary structural matrix with H. erinaceus powder as a functional and flavor-enhancing additive presents an optimal strategy for developing high-quality meat analogs.

Anti-inflammatory effects of hot-water and 70% ethanol extracts of six species of mushrooms (Hericium erinaceus, Cordyceps militaris, Ganoderma lingzhi, Auricularia auricula-judae, Tremella fuciformis, and Lentinula edodes) produced in Korea and China were investigated. In the rates of nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cell, Korean mushrooms were lower NO production than those of Chinese mushrooms. The hot-water extract of Korean H. erinaceus showed the lowest NO production of 32.4%, and the 70% ethanol extract of Korean T. fuciformis was 25.9%. It suggested that NO suppression activities in the 70% ethanol extracts were more effective than in hot-water extracts. Cell viability of RAW 264.7 cells harvest at 24 hr after 1 ug/ml concentration of LPS addition and mushroom extracts were determined using MTT assay. In the hot-water extracts, there is no significant difference of cell viabilities between Korean and Chinese mushrooms except for A. auricula-judae. The 70% ethanol extracts of Korean mushrooms were higher cell viabilities than those of Chinese mushrooms. The 70% ethanol extracts of H. erinaceus, A. auricula-judae, and L. edodes showed a remarkable difference of cell viabilities between Korean and Chinese mushrooms.

Peat moss is widely used as a casing material for Agaricus bisporus. However, its use in Korea depends largely on imports, and environmental concerns associated with peat extraction have increased the need for alternative casing materials. This study evaluated the potential use of spent coir substrate generated after hydroponic tomato cultivation as an alternative casing material. Spent coir substrate was mixed with peat moss at 10–90% (w/w) or used alone, and two A. bisporus strains, ‘Saehan’ and ‘A15’, were cultivated. The peat–coir mixtures (S10–S90) had pH values of 8.1–8.5 and electrical conductivity (EC) values of 0.2–0.6 mS/cm, whereas S100 had a lower pH of 6.9. No consistent increase or decrease in yield was observed with increasing proportions of spent coir substrate. S100 showed the highest cumulative yield over three flushes in both strains, reaching 4.99 kg·m-2 in ‘Saehan’ and 7.92 kg·m-2 in ‘A15’. Days to primordia formation and most fruiting body characteristics showed no significant differences among casing treatments. These results suggest that spent coir substrate from hydroponic tomato cultivation has potential as a peat moss alternative for A. bisporus casing. Further evaluation of physical properties, particularly water retention characteristics and porosity, is needed to determine suitable conditions for its practical use.