Earticle

4중이제설은 길장이 삼론종의 전통적인 3중이제설을 토대로 창조한 이제설로서, 삼론종에서 가장 잘 알려진 이론 가운데 하나다. 4중이제설과 관련된 선행연구 대부분은 『대승현론』에 소개된 4중이제설을 중심으로 길장의 타 문헌에 언급된 4중이제설을 통합적으로 연구했다. 그런데 『대승현론』은 길장이나 길장의 제자의 편찬이 아닌, 후대에 가탁된 문헌으로 길장의 사상을 여러 측면에서 왜곡시키고 있고, 4중이제설은 그 대표적인 예라고 할 수 있다. 기실, 4중이제설에 관한 기존 해석 가운데는 재검토되어야 할 부분들이 많다. 이 논문은 그중에서 4중이제설의 교화대상에 초점을 맞추어, 길장이 과연 그 당시 다른 학파들을 겨냥하여 4중이제설을 전개했는지 살펴보았다. 대다수 연구에서 길장의 4중이제설을 당시 중국의 비담사, 성실론사, 지론사, 섭론사의 이제설을 대치하기 위해 3중이제설에서 한 단계를 더해 발전시킨 학설로 간주했다. 그러나 이 주장의 근거가 된 『대승현론』은 길장의 4중이제설을 오해하고 있으며, 4중이제설의 출현은 당시 지론종이나 섭론종과 같은 유식학파와 무관하다. 4중이제설의 교화대상은 초기 3중이제설과 마찬가지로 범부, 이승, 보살이다. 그리고 『대승현론』에서 언급한 비담사, 성실사, 대승사(지론사 및 섭론사)를 이 세 대상에 대응시켜 해석하는 방식은 길장의 의도와 거리가 멀다. 길장의 4중이제설은 결코 전통적인 3중이제설의 맥락에서 벗어난 별개의 학설이 아니라, 3중이제설과 연속적인 맥락 속에서 그것을 더욱 체계적으로 발전시킨 중층적 이제설이다. 4중이제설의 각 단계가 겨냥한 교화대상을 규정하는 것은 앞으로 4중이제설의 전체 논리 구조와 사상적 특징을 밝히기 위한 토대 작업이다.

The theory of the four-level two truths (四重二諦說) created by Jizang (吉藏), was based on the Sanlun school’s traditional theory of the three-level two truths (三重二諦說), and is one of the most renowned teachings of the Sanlun school (三論宗). Most of the preceding studies related to the theory of the fourlevel two truths were the result of integrating the theory mentioned in other literature of Jizang, focusing on the theory introduced in Dasheng xuanlun 大乘玄論. However, the extant Dasheng xuanlun is neither a work of Jizang nor a compilation by his disciples. Instead, it is a document that was later attributed to Jizang, distorting many of his thoughts, including the theory of the four-level two truths. Therefore, many issues need to be addressed in the previous studies on the theory of the four-level two truths. This paper focuses on the intended audience of each level of the two truths and examines whether Jizang developed the theory in reaction to other schools of his day. Generally, Jizang’s theory of the four-level two truths is considered to have developed one step further from the theory of the three-level two truths to criticize the two truths of the Abhidharma, Chengshi, Dilun, and Shelun schools in China. However, Dasheng xuanlun, which has been the basis for this argument, misinterpreted the four-level two truths theory since it has nothing to do with the emergence of Yogācāra schools which occurred at the time as the Dilun and Shelun schools. The intended audience of each stage is ordinary people, the two vehicles, and Bodhisattvas, the same as in the early theory of the three-level two truths. It is far from the original intention of Jizang to claim that those three recipients correlate with the masters of the Abhidharma, Chengshi, and Mahāyāna (e.g., Dilun and Shelun) schools, mentioned in Dasheng xuanlun. Jizang’s theory of the four-level two truths is not a separate theory that deviates from the context of the traditional theory of the three-level two truths but is a multi-layered theory developed more systematically in a continuous context with the theory of the three-level two truths. By focusing on the intended audience at each stage, this paper lays the groundwork for further research on the logical structure and characteristics of the four-level two truths theory.

구마라집본 『금강경』에는 ‘즉비’에 해당하는 구가 24개 있다. 범어사본과 티벳 본에서 확인한 결과 초기 범어사본에는 그렇게 많지 않고, 티벳본은 기계적인 통 일 번역이어서 범어사본과 유사하다. 범어사본 『금강경』은 고본으로 갈수록 붓다 와 수보리의 진솔한 대화여서 자연스럽게 불설에 다가가게 이끄는 힘이 있음에도 불구하고, 구마라집본은 ‘즉비’ 구로 정형화하여 우리에게 이것이 붓다의 말씀임을 강조하고 있다. ‘A即非’ 중 ‘即’은 A로 그 범위를 한정하면서도 ‘A 그대로’의 의미로 쓰였는데, ‘A 即非A 是名A’ 구는 A와 A의 본디 모습이 동시에 보일 때, A라고 말하는 문구이다. A 자체의 본모습이 바로 非A임을 알고서 A라고 이미 설해졌고, 지금도 그렇게 설해지고 있으며, 앞으로도 계속 설해질 것이기에 『화엄경』에서는 만물이 늘 설법하 고 있다고 한다. 그리고 ‘是名A’라고 여래가 언제나 진실한 말을 하고 있다고 『법화경』에서는 말한다. 그러나 『금강경』에서는 그 진실하다는 상도 넘어서고 주· 객의 분화가 일어나기 전 무분별지도 넘어선 후득지에 의해 ‘是名A’라고 하고 있 다. 라집은 제8품에서 범어사본의 ‘A即非A’ 꼴을 ‘A即非A性’이라고 번역한 후에 복덕이 많다고 여래가 설했다고 하여 달마가 양 무제에게 공덕이 ‘無’라고 한 말과 모순되나, 후대의 공즉불공(空即不空)의 의미와는 일치한다.

In the Kumārajīva version of the Diamond Sūtra, we find twenty-four instances in which the stock phrase “A is not A as such. Therefore, it is called A” appears. It seems, however, that this phrase was not initially used in such a standardized form. The researcher’s examination of the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions of the scripture has revealed that such a typical form does not appear frequently in the earlier Sanskrit manuscripts and that a similar pattern is also found in the Tibetan versions, as the latter is a uniform and mechanical rendering of the Sanskrit versions. Whereas the earlier Sanskrit versions of the Diamond Sūtra adopt an inspiring literary style that draws its reader naturally to the words of the Buddha, the Kumārajīva version fixes the corresponding passages in a standardized form and emphasizes that these are the words of the Buddha. The phrase “A is not A as such. Therefore, it is called A” states that when one immediately sees A is the dharma-nature devoid of self-nature and thus sees A is not what its real concept is, it is called A. Therefore, it was already said, is being said, and will be said that since the true nature of A is not identical with A, it is called A. Therefore, the Huayan S ūtra says that everything is constantly preaching the dharma; the Lotus Sūtra also says that the Tathāgata is always giving truthful words “It is called A.” In the case of the Diamond Sūtra, however, the phrase “It is called A” means that the Tathāgata goes beyond the true characteristic itself and performs a linguistic activity caused by the subsequently attained wisdom, which goes beyond the nondiscriminating wisdom that occurs prior to the division of one’s consciousness into subjective and objective aspects. The Sanskrit phrase meaning “A is not A as such” which appears in Chapter 8 of the Diamond Sūtra is rendered as “A is not of the nature of A” in the Kumārajīva version. He then adds that the Tathāgata says that there are therefore great merits. This seems to contradict with Bodhidharma’s criticism of Liang Wudi as having no merits, but it rather corresponds with the meaning of the passage “emptiness is itself non-emptiness.”

오시이마모루 감독의 1995년작 <공각기동대 : Ghost in the Shell>는 인간이 방대한 정보를 저장할 수 있는 전자두뇌[소위 전뇌(電腦)]를 탑재할 수 있고, 이를 통해 네트워크에 접속해 시공간의 제약 없이 정보의 이동이 가능한 시대를 배경 으로 한다. 이러한 전뇌가 해킹되어 정신활동의 대표적 기능 중 하나인 기억이 조 작된다면 자아의 정체성은 어떻게 담보될 수 있을까? 작품에서는 전산 프로그램 으로 개발된 인형사(人形師, Puppet Master)가 등장하는데 그는 방대한 정보를 획 득한 어느 시점에서 자아를 자각하게 된다. 그리고 자신은 생명체임을 주장한다. 이렇게 기술의 발달로 기억이라는 정보의 이동이 한계를 벗어날 때 개별 존재는 어떻게 정의 내릴 수 있을까? 감독은 이와 더불어 생명체의 필수요건 중 하나인 종족 번식의 의미에까지 질문을 던진다. 이에 대해 작품은 존재의 정체성을 고스 트(Ghost)로 표현한 뒤, 개체의 특성을 물려주는 종족 번식은 고스트의 융합으로 제시한다. 이러한 융합을 통한 새로운 존재의 탄생은 불교를 포함한 인도철학의 중요 이 론인 윤회론과 강한 접점을 갖는다. 따라서 본 연구는 작품 속 고스트의 의미를 분석하여 고스트가 어떻게 윤회론으로 해석될 수 있는지 고찰한다. 그 결과 고스 트는 불멸의 영혼(ātman)보다 불교가 제시한 심적 작용에 가까워 보이는데, 특히 전생의 식(識), 혹은 중유(中有)의 작용과 유사성이 있음을 분석한다. 또한 고스트 간의 융합으로 발생한 존재는 융합 이전의 상태를 기억할 수 없다는 점 등을 통해 본 작품이 윤회론을 통해 해석될 수 있음을 결론으로 제시한다.

Mamoru Oshii’s ‘Ghost in the Shell’, presents an era in which information can be moved without any restrictions because it can be freely distributed via a network that is like an Electronic Brain. In this time, how can the identity of the self be guaranteed if the Electronic Brain is hacked and memory, one of the representative functions of mental activity, is manipulated? In the work, a puppet master, in the form of a computer program, becomes aware of itself at some point when it acquires vast amounts of information. And it insists that (s)he is a live creature. How can individual beings be defined when the movement of information (or memory) goes beyond their boundaries due to developing technology? The work also asks questions about the regulation of species reproduction. The director pportrays beings as Ghosts. And then presents the procreation of races that passes on the characteristics of individuals, as a merging of Ghosts. The birth of a new existent being through this convergence resembles reincarnation, an important theory of Indian philosophy, including Buddhism. Therefore, this study first analyzes Ghost as an entity and examines how Ghosts can be interpreted within reincarnation theory. Results Findings show that Ghosts seem to be closer to the perceptual faculty suggested by Buddhism than the immortal soul (ātman), and it is deduced that there is a similarity to the action of the consciousness of the past life or the action of the antarābhava (中有). In addition, it is suggested that this work can be interpreted as a type of reincarnation theory based on the fact that the existing, which arises from the mergence between Ghosts, cannot remember its state before the mergence.

This is a study of the inscriptions on various types of Buddhist images and stelae made by the common people during the Northern dynasties and Sui and Tang dynasties from the fourth to the ninth century. These inscriptions demonstrate that many common people dedicated their merits of making Buddhist images to emperors, ministers and the state apart from their present parents and parents of past seven generations. Hou Xudong thinks that this is a recognition of the state, the Northern Wei, by the common people. Satō Chisui thinks that it is the emperor worship amongst the common people as instructed by their society’s monastic teachers. But he is still not sure about the reasons why the Buddhist monks and nuns also had the mentality of emperor worship. Ishimatsu Hinako thinks that it is due to Emperor Taiwu’s persecution of Buddhism; Chinese Buddhists were afraid that such tragedy might happen again so that their faith in Buddhism became stronger and they wished that the emperor could protect Buddhism. I argue that it was the Buddhist way to pay their debt of gratitude to the Chinese emperors for their protection of Buddhism because Buddhism had faced many challenges and criticisms from Chinese people since its introduction to China in the Han dynasty and it even underwent severe persecutions. Emperor Tai Wudi of the Northern Wei, for instance, persecuted Buddhism so the monastics had a vivid memory of such events.

Various types of patriotic Buddhism emerged at different levels of acceptance of Buddhism. This study divided patriotic Buddhism into five types. The types are as follows : receptive, recognized as state religion, autocratic, preservation-intended, human-oriented. Characteristics of patriotic Buddhism in Joseon manifested as ‘preservation-intended’ and ‘human-oriented’ Buddhism. Preservation-intended is to preserve it against anti-Buddhism, pro-Confucianism policies, and Human-oriented is to help and protect people from national crises. During the Joseon Dynasty, Buddhists carried out various activities for the very existence of Buddhism and for national defense to overcome national crises. The conduct of rituals for royal stability and establishment of temples guarding royal tombs seem to be an inevitable choice to preserve Buddhism, and forming monastic army during war times can be seen as patriotic activities to defend the state. Patriotic Buddhism during the Joseon Dynasty manifested as provision of political advise, formation of monastic soldiers to protect people and the state, publication of scriptures to disseminate Buddhist teachings and enlighten people, and social work to help people in need. In a modern, multi-faith society, patriotic Buddhism needs to explore ways to expand the common-good-promoting aspects of Buddhism, and help people ease their psychological agony.

본 논문에서는 대한불교 천태종이 애국불교를 표방하게 된 역사적 배경과 천 태종도의 시대적 사명으로서 애국불교 그리고 애국불교가 나아가야 할 궁극적 방 향에 대해 논의하였다. 이러한 논의를 통하여 애국불교의 진정한 의미를 밝히고 자 하였다. 대한불교 천태종을 중창한 상월원각대조사는 천태종도에게 시대적 사 명으로서 지상불국의 실현을 교시하였다. 그는 일제강점기에 태어나서 국권을 잃 은 백성으로서 여러 가지 고초를 겪었고 또한 일본인들의 방해로 수행을 하기가 어려워 중국으로 건너가 유랑생활을 하였다. 또한 6.25전쟁을 겪으면서 피난생활 을 하였고 전쟁으로 고통을 받고 있는 중생들을 간호하며 부강하고 통일된 나라 가 되어야 백성들이 편안할 수 있고 또한 수행도 할 수 있음을 인식하였다. 그는 전쟁이 중생에게 많은 고통을 준다는 것을 알게 되었으며 민족중흥(民族中興)과 구 국제세(救國濟世)로서 세계평화를 이룩해야 한다는 생각을 하였다. 이러한 배경을 바탕으로 대조사는 대한불교 천태종을 중창하고 나서 천태종도에게 민족중흥과 구국제세의 성업에 이바지하고 불교의 대중화와 생활화로서 지상불국을 실현해야 한다는 시대적 사명을 교시하였다. 또한 『천태종성전』에서는 새불교운동의 3대지 표로서 대중불교의 실현과 생활불교의 실천 그리고 애국불교의 건립을 말하였다. 여기서 말하고 있는 애국불교의 방향은 『법화경』의 일승진리를 전 세계에 유포하여 세계평화가 이룩된 지상불국을 실현하는 것이다. 모든 부처님이 하는 일은 중 생에게 일승진리를 가르쳐 성불케 하는 것이다. 따라서 애국불교의 방향은 대한민 국 뿐만 아니라 전 세계에 있는 모든 중생에게 일승진리를 알려서 모든 국민이 불 자가 되고 모든 인류가 보살이 되어 일승진리를 배우고 수행하게 하는 것이다. 이 렇게 함으로써 세계의 항구적인 평화가 이룩된 지상불국을 실현할 수 있다. 결론 적으로, 상월원각대조사는 천태종도에게 시대적 사명으로서 애국불교를 주창하였 으며, 천태종도는 전 세계에 있는 모든 중생에게 일승진리를 알려서 세계의 항구 적인 평화가 이룩된 지상불국을 실현하는 애국불교를 건립해야 한다.

This paper is to explore the historical background behind the patriotism of Cheontae Order, how Cheontae Buddhists can pursue patriotism as the mission of the times, and the ultimate direction for patriotic Buddhism. Through this study, it’s intended that the true meaning of patriotic Buddhism is revealed. Grand monk Sangwol was born during the Japan’s colonial rule, and experienced the sorrow and hardships which led him to move to China to practice Buddhism. This time he came to understand the importance of sovereignty and patriotism. While helping the sentient beings suffering from the Korean War, grand monk Sangwol understood that building a strong, unified country is what sentient beings need in order to stay well and safe what monks need to learn and practice Buddhism. Japan’s colonial rule coincides with the WW1 and WW2 times, especially the latter one which resulted in the greatest number of casualties in history. These wars led grand monk Sangwol to realize how severely the sentient beings could suffer from, and the necessity to pursue national revival and salvation of the nation and the world towards world peace. Grand monk Sangwol highlighted three doctrines in Holy Book of Cheontae Order : realization of popularization of Buddhism, practice of Habituation of Buddhism, and establishment of patriotic Buddhism. Among them the patriotic Buddhism is directed to spread the ‘one vehicle truth’ of the Lotus Sutra to the world and realize the Buddha’s Land where the world peace is achieved. What Buddha is to do is teaching sentient beings about the ‘one vehicle truth’ to lead them to attain Buddhahood. It means patriotic Buddhism therefore should be directed to spread the ‘one vehicle truth’ to the nation and the world, so that everyone can live as Buddhists and all people around the world as learning and practicing the ‘ one vehicle truth.’ This way, the Buddha’s Land where the world peace is achieved can be realized. In conclusion, grand monk Sangwol taught members of Cheontae Order about the patriotic Buddhism as the mission of the time, and therefore the Cheontae Order members should establish patriotic Buddhism where the ever-lasting world peace is achieved, by spreading the ‘one vehicle truth’ to sentient beings around the world.

What is the significance of studying the Buddhist way of practice? Recently, the term “Siddhartha Intent” has been heard among Tibetan Buddhists. It means that we should be aware of the purpose of the Buddha’s renouncing the worldly life, which was to transcend the suffering of affliction. The way that makes this possible was practice, or the method of observation called satipaṭṭhāna. The practice of satipaṭṭhāna was later called “cessation and observation.” I will consider the historical development of this cessation and observation that first appeared in India, then developed in China and was renovated to Chan (Jpn. Zen) Buddhism.