Earticle

창세기의 족장사 내에서 이스라엘의 첫 번째 족장 부부인 아브라함과 사라의 삶의 모습이 소개 되는데, 고대 여성들의 지위 내지는 위치가 가부장적 관점 하에서 묘사되고 있음을 알 수 있다. 이 논문은 아브라함과 사라 이야기 중에서 가부장적 억압과 성차별적 관점을 가진 몇 개의 본문을 선택하여 그 안에 은폐되고 숨겨져 있는 여성 해방의 목소리를 들어보고자 한다.

From the story of Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, Abraham appears as a perpetrator of discrimination and violence in many cases. He abandoned his wife Sarah twice, and then handed her over to another men(Gen 12:10~20; 20:1~18). Moreover, he conspired with his wife to drive Hagar out to the desert(Gen 16). He was the indirect perpetrator who kept silent at the violence that his wife had done. Abraham forced Hagar and Ishmael into the desert again and led them to suffer deadly threats(Gen 21). Abraham and Sarah inflicted the merciless violence upon the slave woman and her son. The Old Testament texts mentioned above are saying the message in common. Sarah, Hagar, and Ishmael, who were the victims of oppression and violence, were rescued by God. God does not want anyone to be oppressed by distorted society or the strong. God was the one who rescued Sarah from Pharaoh of Egypt. Thus, Sarah was the first object of salvation, pointing to the salvation of Israel. God solve her problem of sterility and also changed her unbelieving ridicule into true pleasure(Gen 21:6). He consoled Hagar who had been driven out to the desert with tears, and also gave her a message of redemption. He did not discriminate her on the basis of her Egyptian origin or slavery. While God continued to be the problem solver, Abraham was the perpetrator of violence. God is the only the one who are able to resolve the problem of class discrimination as well as sexual violence. He takes care of the oppressed people all the time. To experience the true liberation in the situations of oppression and pain is possible only when God directly interferes with the scene of history. Abraham, who lived in the Patriarchal age, was a victim as well as an offender under the discriminating social structure. He was not evil in origin but social structure made him act as such. That is why it appears that the biblical text defends him. Although he was related to many discriminatory thoughts and behaviors, he was the first noble patriarch of Israel!

본 연구는 신명기 개혁운동에 나타난 여성에 대한 다양한 이해와 여성 해방의 주장을 종합적으로 분석하고자 한다. 필자는 신명기의 다양한 여성 해방의 주장들의 정확한 의미를 파악하기 위해 사회사적으로 분석한다. 이를 통해 이스라엘 역사에 나타난 여성억압의 역사와 여성해방의 역사를 함께 살펴보고, 궁극적으로 신명기 개혁운동의 목적을 보다 분명히 살피고자 한다.

The 8th century BCE was a time when Israel‘s national and economic power reached at its peak. In contrast, however, it had brought forth social upheaval as well. The rich were able to accumulate their wealth, taking advantage of their social positions and economic power. Meanwhile, the socially underprivileged were suffering harder persistently. When Assyria had invaded the Syria-Palestine regions at the late 8th century BCE, the social and economic polarization was escalating. The overall crisis was evidently appearing. The political breakdown of northern Israel led its people to migrate into southern Judah, in which, in the mean time, people in the rural area were moving to the urban. In this historical context, the deuteronomic revolution carried out to protect the nation from the military invasion and, at the same time, to make the nation a coherent society. Various parts of society underwent reforms, and women under oppression also somehow enjoyed liberation. In the context of the nation's crisis(under Assyrian threats in this case) the socially weak suffered more hardship. Women were of course placed in socially weaker position than men, and there existed threats of sexual harassment toward women. The Israelite history has shown both oppression to women and protection for women. Particularly there were concerns of women's social safety in the deuteronomic movement as part of caring the socially disadvantaged. The present article examines the history of women's oppression and also their liberation, along with exegetical analysis of the relevant passages in Deuteronomy that imply liberation of or protection for women. The social background of the passages is also dealt with in terms of social history. Special attention is paid to a prohibited command for the king, “He must not take many wives” in Deuteronomy 17:17aα in order to explore its meaning in a social history. The attempts of social reforms in the deuteronomic movement were more than humanitarian purpose caring the weak in society; it had historical significance. Under the military threats from Assyria, the deuteronomic reform tried to create coherence in society while eliminating anti-community traits in Israel. In one sense, liberation of women was meant to control the king's authority.

이 논문은 이경숙의 여성신학, 구약역사서 연구를 중심으로 여성신학을 다룬다. 이경숙 교수는 여성해방이라는 차원에서 여성신학과 여성비평적 방법론으로 연구한다. 이러한 논지에 대해 창조질서의 관점에서 다시 여성신학의 논의를 문제 삼는다. 이경숙의 여성신학을 소개하며 하나님이 여성을 창조한 목적과 이유, 그리고 신약 성경에서 보여준 여성의 가치와 위치, 교회의 질서 안에서 여성의 존재이유를 찾고자 하는 시도를 한다.

I purpose to study the feminine theology of the Old Testament History books. First I investigate the womanist theology, feminism, feminist criticism, the relationship between Korea culture and Women. Lee Kyoung Sook’s Theology is not the theology of Old Testament History Books (Deuteronomistic History and Chronicle History Study) but the womanist theology in the liberation of women. Therefore I try to research Lee Kyoung Sook’s approach to the Old Testament, by knowing that the woman’s value and God’s creation purpose, the reason of a new Being in the New Testament, the order of the church. Also I find out that the feminist theology can integrate all areas of theology, especially eco-theology. Moreover, I intend to succeed to the woman tradition of the Old Testament, such as Sarah, Hagar, Deborah, Esther, Ruth, Rahab, Huldah and last Maria of NT. etc. The meaning of Old Testament Theology in the perspective of Womanist theology needs to be studied. It is a possibility that the womanist theology could be the core of the life theology from woman liberation theology to eco-theology, Tong-Il theology. Now it is freshly produced that womanist theology contributes to develop the order of the church and creation in the perspective of liberation.

지금까지 여성신학자들이 입다의 딸의 죽음의 원인을 주로 입다의 서원에서 찾으려고 한 것과 달리, 이 논문은 이 사건의 이면에 복합적인 정치적, 사회적, 문화적 모방 위기가 있음을 보이고자 한다. 필자는 이 논문을 통해 애곡제의가 단순한 애곡이 아니라, 입다의 딸이 남성들의 폭력적 모방 경쟁의 희생양임을 폭로하고, 이를 ‘되풀이하여 자세히 말하는’ 제의임을 밝힌다.

Feminist theologians have ascribed the primary cause of the tragic death of Jephthah’s daughter to her father’s hasty vow. But this paper addresses that Jephthah’s vow itself was not the real cause. Rather, his vow could be considered to be a pious religiosity, considering the context of the battlefield. The real problem of his vow should be found in the very result of human sacrifice. Yet this paper presents that the daughter’s sacrifice was not the problem entirely of an individual, her father, but that of both her father and the community of the Gileadites through the interpretive lens of René Girard. This narrative reveals two aspects of mimetic crisis behind the scene. One aspect is between Jephthah and the Gileadites, and between the Gileadites and the Ammonites. Jephthah wants to be the insider of the Gileadites. In turn, the Gileadites want the political, military and administrative constitution like the Canaanites. This mimetic desire inevitably results in military conflicts. Jephthah’s daughter was entangled in such a mimetic crisis. She was sacrificed and then, annually her death was commemorated by Israelite women. This paper presents that the annual commemoration is not a simple lamentation for her death but, more importantly, to expose that the daughter was a scapegoat for patriarchal mimetic violence.

와스디, 에스더, 세레스는 서로에게서 분리되어 있고 서로 말하지 않는다. 에스더서의 화자는 이 세 여성을 나누고 암시적으로 갈등관계에 둔다. 그러나 이 세 여자는 뜻밖에도 에스더 안에서 하나로 통합될 수 있다. 나아가 교회 여성들 사이에서 와스디들, 에스더들, 세레스들로 나뉘지 않고 하나로 통할될 가능성을 모색한다.

This essay attempts to evaluate women's leadership presented by the narrator of the Book of Esther. The narrator presents distorted images of women's leadership through the description of Vashti, Esther and Zeresh. Vashti is a woman leader who is independent and has high self-esteem. But she is an example of a lousy woman who does not support her husband and makes him look bad in public. This kind of woman deserves punishment and women readers are not to emulate her. Esther is helpful to men and gives everything good to men, although she has to risk her safety. She is an ideal woman leader to the narrator. Zeresh is also helpful to men. She offers counsel to her husband when asked. But she speaks against her own interests. The readers have been divided in regard to interpreting the biblical women. Some feminist readers praise Vashti for her independence and criticize Esther for working for men in their terms. Others give credit to Esther for using what is available to her with wisdom and courage to meet her ends despite the limits of the times. Most scholars do not even deal with Zeresh. We see Zeresh as the brain behind her husband's political activities. All these women are separated from one another and never talk to one another. Each is like an island drifting alone in men's sea. The narrator makes the reader compare and contrast the women characters and take a side. Focusing on a woman character or comparison or contrast among them only results in separating them even more. Women readers will also be divided into two. Seeing Vashti as a better leader than Esther risks the same danger. The women's leadership described by the narrator misleads the readers. It leaves complicated heritage to Korean church women. Most Korean preachers not only follow the narrator, but intensify and magnify it in the patriarchal context of the Korean church. Their understanding of biblical women's leadership is in direct proportion to modern women's leadership status in the church. In fact, among women in the church there is separation and conflict among Vashitis and Esthers. Thus, sensitive readers can see the need for the women character in the Book Esther and church women need to be incorporated into one respectively. We see Vashti in Esther when the latter breaks a royal rule. We see Zeresh in Esther when the latter acts like a sage. Church women also have all these women in them, being Vashti rebellious against the opaque church management, being Esther obedient to the end, and being Zeresh speaking against her interests. A healthy incorporation of the three will strengthen the church.

이 논문은 외모가 자본인 사회에서 아가에 등장하는 여자의 몸 이미지들을 ‘기괴하다’고 보는 피오나 블랙(Fiona Black)의 논의를 재검토하여, 여자의 몸을 묘사하는데 사용된 동, 식물이나 건축물 이미지는 고대세계에서 여자 몸의 기괴함보다는 자부심을 드러내는 몸이라는 주장을 통해 현 사회의 다양한 몸들을 편견 없는 시선으로 보고자 한다.

From the Othered Body to the Living Body: Centering the Body Images in the Song of Songs Ji-Eun Park Lecturer at Ewha Woman's University Vanderbilt University Ph. D. This article re-examines our perception of body images of ourselves and others in current society where physical appearance is capitalized and commercialized through the investigation of the body images in the Song of Songs. The human body, which was inferior to the human mind under the Greek dichotomous mind/body scheme, has been revalued and harmonized with the mind by modern Western discourse. However, particular human bodies, along with an over-emphasis on the human body in general, have been considered superior and more beautiful according to a standard set by a certain group of people in our society. As a result, some, particularly those who have bodies that do not fit this standard, are alienated and risk their lives to reshape their bodies through plastic surgery. Women's bodies, rather than men's, are more exposed to suffering from these social expectations and standards. Women's bodies are usually described negatively in the Hebrew Bible as well. However, women's body images in the Song of Songs represent the natural female body rather than embodying social prejudice. Even though women's body images in the Song of Songs may be viewed as grotesque, as Fiona Black suggests, this argument overlooks the question of whose perspective is being reflected. In other words, the distinction between ugly/grotesque and beautiful or between normal and abnormal reflects a social perspective that has been naturalized by a particular discourse. Accordingly, the article tries to generate an unbiased perspective, perceiving the bodies of ourselves and others as they are, without evaluating and judging them through social/othering eyes or distorted eyes.

이글은 지금까지의 가부장적 하나님 아버지 표상을 넘어서 성서의 하나님이 생명잉태와 돌봄, 모태 사랑의 여성적 원리에 기초한 창조와 구원의 역할을 담당하는 생명의 하나님으로 상징되고 있음을 밝히고, 핵무기 위협과 생태위기 등으로 생명의 위협을 받는 현대시대에 한국교회가 생명살림의 하나님의 상징을 더 발전시킬 것을 제안하고 있다.

Reading of God in the Old Testament with Feminist Eyes Yeong Mee Lee, Ph.D Professor, Department of Theology Hanshin University The present article aims to examine biblical God of creation and salvation from feminist perspective and draw anti-patriarchal and inclusive images of God of life that may apply for modern Christian era. Although Christian tradition has been highlighting the male image of God, the Father, biblical description of creation and salvation is depicted based on feminie principle of life-bearing and compassionate love of womb. The examination of Mother Goddesses of Ancient times who played major role in creation of the world as life-bearer illustrates the feminine principles of life in creation. This principle of life in creation and the motifs of childbirth are applied in description of creation of the world and Israel in the Bible. The appearance of Goddess in the Bible shows the depreciation of Goddesses’ status from independent creative god to the spouse of male god. They are no longer shown as the creator but play role as one who brings fertility and prosperity. These Goddesses were worshiped among people, especially by women. The Israelite official religion that affirms one God alone for Israel, however, condemns the Goddess worship and supplies the absence of Goddess in their religion with alternative theological symbols such as woman Zion or woman wisdom. The image of God of salvation is then depicted based on feminine principle of compassionate love, rachamim. Thus this study suggests to apply the images of biblical God of creation and salvation, rooted in the feminine principle that embraces the value of life, for imagining the work of God in this time of life threat by nuclear weapons and ecological crisis.

이 논문은 신명기의 ‘이혼법’(신 24:1-4) 연구를 통해, 비록 당시 이스라엘 사회가 이혼을 법적으로 허용하고 이혼 후의 삶 또한 보장하고 있지만, 이혼 이후에 발생하는 복잡한 관계가 본래 결혼에 대한 야웨 하나님의 의지에 반하는 것임을 밝히고자 한다. 필자는 남자와 여자 사이의 혼인 계약의 파괴라는 이혼 개념은 예언자 본문들에서 야웨와 이스라엘 사이의 계약관계를 나타내는 윤리적, 신학적 의미로 확대되었음을 확인한다.

Divorce in the Old Testament: Breaking the permanent covenant? Eun-Ae Lee Lecturer at Ewha Womans University München Universität Dr. Theol. This paper investigates the understanding of divorce in the Old Testament. This study applies a historical-critical method from a feministic perspective of the so-called ‘divorce law’ in Deuteronomy(Deut 24:1-4) and other texts that deal with the concept of ‘divorce’. Divorce refers to the end of a marriage relationship. In the Old Testament, marriage is often regarded as a covenant between husband and wife. In Genesis, marriage is a permanent covenant commanded by God(Gen 2:23). The purpose of the ‘divorce law’(Deut 24:1-4) is to forbid a woman's former husband to take her back to be his wife. Nevertheless, the text shows that divorce, like marriage, is possible in ancient Israelite society, and that the reasons for the divorce can be founded not only in a wife's sexual fault, but also in the change of heart of the husband. The woman with a ‘certificate of divorce’ was allowed to remarry another man. However, reunion with her former husband is explained as an abomination before God and as an act to bring sin upon the land. The legal institutions of marriage, divorce, and remarriage are interpreted now in terms of their cultic and theological meanings. In prophetic texts such as Hosea, Jeremiah, and Malachi, the marriage-divorce formula is used as a symbol to indicate the covenantal relationship between Yahweh und Israel. The adultery of Judah as a wife caused a breaking of the covenant, namely divorce with her husband Yahweh. However, God wants only the faithfulness of Israel. Malachi gives the Israelite living in the postexilic period the warning against divorcing his Jewish wife to marry a pagan wife. The concept of ‘divorce’ is discussed beyond the dimension of the legislation within the theological and ethical dimensions.

이 논문은 욥기 29장 안에 나타난 사회적 약자 보호 사상이 신명기적 윤리 규범에 기인함을 지적한다. 필자에 의하면, 욥기는 페르시아 시대의 정치적 상황에서 사회적 약자의 빈곤의 원인을 다루고 있는데, 과거 히브리인들의 법전에서 발견 할 수 없는 진일보한 실천적 윤리의식이 나타난다. 필자는 욥기 29장의 고찰을 통하여 신명기적 윤리 규범이 어떻게 투영되고 발전 되었는지를 규명한다.

A study on the Ethical Imperative of the Deutronomic Theology in Job 29Han Geun Cho, Ph.D Adjunct Professor, Department of Theology, The Salvation Army Officer Training College This study aims to demonstrate the influence of the ethical imperative of the Deuteronomic theology for the poor in Job 29. In this paper, I investigated ethical imperative for the poor in the postexilic times reflected in the Book of Job. For the purpose of the study, I used sociological criticism as a tool interpreting the texts. And I studied social classes to locate the position of the needy in the time of the Book of Job. Also I investigated personal situations of the editor and the problems of the society, which are reflected in Job 29. Deuteronomy stresses social and individual responsibility for the poor. But, the post-exilic community did not observe the laws. The Israelites failed to abide by the words of God regarding the poor throughout their history. In this historical context, Nehemiah tried social reform for the poor at the Second-Temple period(Neh. 5:1-15). Historically, in the postexilic period, the community of Judah showed a great gap between the haves and have-nots. But the community failed to overcome the huge gulf between the rich and poor. The Book of Job provides information about the poor's social position and situation in peculiar historical context in the post-exilic times. Especially, Job 29 shows how the ethical imperative of the Deuteronomic theology for the poor was adapted in post-exilic society. In this paper, I have demonstrated considerable similarities between the Book of Job and Deuteronomy regarding the attitudes for the weak and the poor. In the time of the Book of Job, the Judahites did not protect the poor. Particularly, the aristocrats took bribery, by doing so perverted justice. Job 29 demonstrates how Job, the righteous noble, had diligently helped the poor(Job 29:14). In fact, Job 29 goes further than the Deuteronomic laws in terms of showing the authentic meaning of protecting the poor.

본 논문은 이사야 66장과 관련한 성전논쟁에 대한 폴 핸슨의 사회학적 비평을 재고하고 문학비평적 관점에서 포로후기 공동체의 신학적 문제의 실체를 고찰한다. 필자는 본문이 자리하는 역사적 현장이 제2성전 건립 여부의 문제가 아니라 포로귀환 공동체의 신앙적 위기에 관한 문제임을 ‘야웨의 보좌’ 모티프와 세밀한 읽기, 그리고 수사학적 구조분석을 통해 밝힌다.

A Reconsideration of the Temple Controversy in Isaiah 66:1-24Keun-Jo Ahn Ph.D. Professor, Department of Theology Hoseo University This paper investigates the temple controversy in Isaiah 66:1-24. Paul Hanson discusses that the trito-Isaiah‘s proclamation in Isa. 66:1, "Heaven is my throne and the earth is my footstool, what is the house which you would build for me, and what is the place of my rest?," is based on the conflict between the hierocratic priestly group and marginalized prophetic visionary group in the post-exilic community. According to Hanson, the trito-Isaiah himself among the prophetic visionary group is confronting against the plan of the rebuilding the temple in 520 BCE. However, this sociological critical reading has resulted narrow understanding of the post-exilic community leaving multi-layered texture of the text uncovered. Through rhetorical critical analyses of the text, this paper has found that the main issue has nothing to do with the building of the real bricks temple but to do with the building of the inner sanctuary. This new building project is initiated by Yahweh who will march against the wicked from the sanctuary of Jerusalem as Divine Warrior and look after the righteous in the Mount Zion as Divine Saviour. I have delved deeply into the texture of Isaiah 66 by utilizing such rhetorical critical devices as "Yahweh's throne motif", close reading, and structural analysis. This rhetorical critical interpretation has disclosed the essential issues of the text and further revealed some aspects of the social realities of the post-exilic society, which the socio-critical analyses have failed to found.

이 논문은 다니엘서 7-12장에 종말에 관한 계시가 7장, 8장, 9장, 10-12장에서 네 번이나 반복해서 나타나는 이유로부터 출발한다. 이 연구에서 필자는 다니엘서의 연대를 이용하여 다니엘서에서 종말에 관한 신앙이 어떻게 형성되어 갔는지를 공시적으로 보여주고자 한다. 필자에 의하면, 다니엘서 7장부터 12장까지 종말에 관한 계시가 바벨론의 멸망, 네 왕국, 칠십 이레, 반 이레 등의 계시가 점진적으로 드러난다.

My study starts from my question toward whether Dan 7, 8, 9, and 10-12 drily repeat the same revelation about eschatology. My thesis in this paper is that the view about eschatology in the Book of Daniel is gradually formulated according to the period which Daniel lived in. The common themes in both Daniel 1-6 and Daniel 7-12 are as follows: the exile is allowed by God; the exile comes to its end with the coming of the kingdom of God; the end of the exile does not come through human power; God deposes and sets up kings until the exile comes to its end. In Dan 7-12, the revelation about eschatology is gradually revealed through the historical element and revelatory element. Antiochus IV in Dan 7-12 shows its archetype of both Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar in that the first threatens the life of the diaspora by forcing the worship of the golden statue, and the latter commits a blasphemy. The first faith about eschatology is that the Babylonian empire perishes. While, however, the Babylonian empire still exists, Daniel receives new revelation about four kingdoms, a time, two times, half a time as a climax of persecution, the destruction of the fourth kingdom, and the coming of one like a human-being. It is not easy for Daniel to understand this new revelation. After Babylon destroyed, Daniel understands the end of exile does not come when Babylon destroys, but after seventy weeks. Now Daniel understands a time, two times, half a time is connected to the revelation of seventy weeks. Through new revelation in Dan 10-12, Daniel understands that four kingdoms and seventy weeks are connected each other. Moreover, Daniel receives the revelation about the event in the end of history.

이 논문은 죽음을 인간의 가장 아름다운 실존으로 이해하고자 시도한다. 필자는 인간의 자연적인 죽음이 창세기 2-3장에서 창조주로부터 주어진 본래적인 것이며, 그 의미는 지혜문학(즉 전 11/12장과 시 104편)에 서술된 바와 같이 인간에게 자신의 한계를 깨닫게 하며, 영원히 존재하시는 하나님 앞에서 겸손하게 하며, 그들에게 주어진 현재의 삶에 적극적인 자세로 임하게 하는 것임을 밝힌다.

This paper is intended to show how significant the meaning of death is to man, particularly to his present life, through the creation and wisdom tradition of the Old Testament. Gen 2-3, Ecc 11-12 and Ps 104 are selected for the Text to be analyzed. Among them, Gen 2-3 display the creation of man in subtly structured composition. Firstly, the death of man, at least with regard to his existential basis, is already mentioned before the Fall of man. Secondly, the life and death of man are arranged together in contrasting structure. !gh-#[ lkm(2:16) is an illusion to life and is connected with [rw bwj t[dh #[m(2:17), which clearly symbolizes death. This composition progresses to 2:9 and the verse can be divided into #[ lk as available to man and ~yyxh #[/[rw bwj t[dh #[ as unavailable to man. The unavailable trees, which enable man not only to die but also to live, symbolize the presence and the realm of God. Man is not allowed to invade there. Furthermore the concept of eternal life is characterized differently between the Creator and man. The Creator is immortal, whereas man is able to continue his existence only by the childbirth. It is because man is originated from earth and must return to earth. Thirdly, man was created in two processes. God formed (rcy) the man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life. The first process signifies that man has no qualitative difference from animals and the second one means that God is the Giver of man's life. It is expressed based on the concept of ‘ed’ (da, in 2:6) as well as the description of the river, which flowed from the Garden of Eden and separated into four Headwaters. It was set up in the Garden of Eden that death of man is originated from God, the Creator Himself. Therefore, death is definitive to man. Human's limited capabilities became concrete and man was clearly distinguished from God, the Creator. And such understanding about the human nature is in line with other traditions of the Old Testament, especially the concept of the death of the wisdom literature. In particular, Ecc 12:7 and Gen 2:7 form the beginning and the end of the existence of man on the earth. The instruction to a young man in Ecc 12:1 that he should remember his Creator before the days of trouble can be interpreted as he must seize the present life as being stated in Ecc 11. Ps 104 shows the same concept. Thus, death functions positively there and allows man to recognize not only his own limitations but also possibilities before God's existence, which transcends death. God sends man back to the realm of life and helps him maintain a positive attitude towards life. Therefore, death of a man is the most beautiful human existence in the Old Testament and can be seen as an extremely positive feature.