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This study investigated variation in the choice of relativizers by Korean middle school and college learners in an English as a Foreign Language setting. In addition to the textbook analysis, two versions of an acceptability task were conducted with 57 Korean middle school students and with 42 college students to investigate the variation pattern in the choice of the relativizers in learners’ interlanguage at two different developmental stages. The target materials included the who/whom alternation and the which/that/null alternation in restrictive object relative clauses. The results revealed that the middle school students lacked pragmatic competence in judging an inappropriate form in informal contexts. Although the college learners showed sensitivity to formality in the pattern of the relativizer judgements, they also exhibited a minor divergence from the target language pragmatics. Based on the findings, a pedagogical implication was suggested to enhance learners’ multi-faceted competence.

한국학생들이 중국어 단일형태 병렬관계접속사를 습득하는 과정 중, 각 단계별 학습자의단어 습득 상황은 서로 다르다. 이는 중국어 병렬관계접속사의 난이도 등급과 관계가 있으며,이외에 교수요강, 교재의 요구와 관계가 있다. 본 논문은 중국어를 모국어로 하는 학습자·교재·중간 언어의 코퍼스를 고찰하고, 각 단계별 한국 학생의 중간언어 중 단일형태 병렬관계접속사의 사용빈도, 정확성, 습득순서, 습득난이도를 분석하였다. 분석 결과 본 논문에서는 한국 학생들의 단일형태 병렬관계접속사의 난이도 등급을 “和/与/跟/同<此外/另外/以及<及/而”로 분류하며, 중간언어의 표현, 교수요강, 교재의 편성에 근거하여, 단일형태 병렬관계접속사의 교수법을 모색하였다.

It is found that, in Chinese, each single-used coordinating conjunction showsdifferently in the different stages of South Korean Chinese learners’ acquisition,which is not only related to the difficulty level of the conjunctions, but alsoto the requirements of the syllabuses and textbooks. This paper first studiesthe materials from the Chinese native speakers, textbooks, and interlanguage,and analyses the usage frequency, the accuracy, the acquisition order and theacquisition difficulty of the single-used coordinating conjunctions in theinterlanguage of the South Korean students in all levels. Then, it sets thedifficulty level of the single-used coordinating conjunctions for the SouthKorean students as, 和/与/跟/同<此外/另外/以及<及/而. At last, according to themanifestation of the interlanguage and the arrangement of the textbooks, thispaper makes the necessary suggestions for the teaching of the single-usedcoordinating conjunctions.

이 연구는 초급과 중급에 속하는 여성결혼이민자들의 쓰기 자료를 수집하여 통사 복잡성을 측정하고 그 후 대학기관학습자들을 대상으로 통사 복잡성을 측정한 선행 연구들과의 비교·분석을 통해서 초급과 중급에 속하는 여성결혼이민자들의 통사 복잡성은 어느 정도 발달되고 있는지를 논의하였다. 그 후 여성결혼이민자들의 통사 복잡성의 각각의 지표들을 학습자 변인과의 상관관계를 살펴보았다. 먼저 통사 복잡성을 문장 길이, 문장 확장, 문장 확장 유형으로 범주화하여 각각 범주에 맞는 통사 복잡성 측정의 지표를 설정하였다. 연구 결과, 당연히 숙달도가 향상되면서 문장 길이뿐만 아니라 문장 확장에서도 양적으 로 여성결혼이민자들의 중간언어는 발달하고 있었다. 그러나 문장 확 장에 관여하는 문법 항목에서 숙달도에 따른 차이가 존재했으나 중급에서 사용하고 있는 문법 항목은 국제통용에서 제시한 문법 항목과 비교했을 때 초급 단계에 머물러 있었다. 즉 여성결혼이민자들은 숙달도가 상승되면서 문장 길이는 분명히 길어지고 있으나 다양한 문법을 사용하는 것에는 한계가 있다. 한편 숙달도에 따라 대등접속지수(CI)가 낮아지는 일반적인 경향과 달리 여성결혼이민자들은 상반된 결과를 가져왔는데, 이는 언어 습득 환경의 차이로 인한 것으로 판단된다. 아울러 여성결혼이민자들의 학습자 변인(거주기간, 학습기간)은 통사 복잡성을 측정한 모든 지표들과 유의미하게 나타났지만 대등접속지수(CI)와는 유의미한 관계가 없었다. 이러한 본 연구의 결과는 그동안 여성결혼이민자들의 중간언어가 오류 분석에만 치우친 시각에서 벗어나 자연적 습득 환경에서 통사 복잡성의 발달이 어떻게 발달되고 있는지를 간략하게나마 살펴보았다는 데에 의의가 있다. 앞으로 자연적 습득 환경에서 통사 복잡성만이 아닌 다양한 역에서도 중간언어 연구가 시도되어야 할 것이다.

Journal of the International Network for Korean Language and Culture 14-3, 313-345. This study was conducted to measure the syntactic complexity and language proficiency of married immigrant women. This study also discusses the correlation between the index measuring syntactic complexity and learner variables. The main purpose of this research was to categorize the length of sentences, sentence extensions, and sentence extension types in order to measure syntactic complexity. Thus, this study was designed to establish a proper index for each category. As a result of this research, it was discovered that both sentence length and extension increased quantitatively according to improvements in proficiency. However, there was a limitation in utilizing various forms of grammar in sentence extensions. Differing from the general tendency of the equality index to decrease along with improvements in proficiency, married immigrant women showed the opposite result. This study determined that the difference was a result of the language acquisition environment. In addition, the proficiency of married immigrant women appeared to be significantly related to all indexes that measured syntactic complexity. However, the residence and learning periods for language did not display significant results on the equality index. Lastly, the significance of this research is that it critically reviewed biased viewpoints present in other research studies, which focused on the interlanguage error analysis of married immigrant women rather than investigating the development of interlanguage along with proficiency based on the concept of complexity. (Dongduk Women’s University)

The description of the nature of Korean - Chinese interlanguage is a very useful way to understand the situation and characteristic of Chinese learning by Korean learner. Korean ？ Chinese interlanguage represents linguistic characteristic of Korean learner, which is related to the various elements of mother tongue (Korean) and Chinese learning of learners. In the aspects of pronunciation, the most remarkable characteristic of Korean learner is a pronunciation that is mainly focused on segments, which is closely related to the fact that Korean is not a tone language. Korean elements are mixed in the rule of sound change and pronunciation of partial consonants and vowels. In the aspects of vocabulary, its systematic character is relatively weak but it has characteristic coming from Korean. Some are substituted by Korean words, some are Korean way in meaning and function and some are due to the complexity of Chinese words. In the aspects of grammar, interlingual interference is negative transfer that is caused by the rule of word arrangement in the Korean sentence which has elements like object and complement etc. The interlingual interference results from the syntactical complexity of Chinese elements like complement, liheci (？合？), cunxianju (存？句) and so on.

This study investigates the acquisition of preposition stranding in the syntactic contexts, such as elliptical wh-questions and non-elliptical ones, by Korean speakers learning English. An acceptability judgment task was conducted to examine the effects of clause types (non-elliptical vs. elliptical), preposition placement (preposition stranding vs. preposition pied-piping), and the V-P dependency (Dependent vs. Independent vs. Irrelevant). The results showed that preposition stranding was rejected in elliptical wh-questions while preposition fronting was favored over preposition stranding in non-elliptical wh-questions. Though the results were seemingly contradictory to the saliency hypothesis proposed by Bardovi-Harlig (1987), the study will provide an Optimality-theoretic analysis for the learners’ interlanguage grammars by adopting the constraint ranking proposed by Choi (2008).

This study examines the use of different types of perspectives on request. The subjects were two groups of junior college learners of English. The first group was 81 students of three conversation classes, and the second group was 94 students of three reading classes at a college near Seoul. At the end of the semester, the students were presented four pragmatic situations on request and answered the open-ended questions with four types of perspective. In the preference of perspectives, most students skewed to speaker-oriented and hearer-oriented strategies. However, some results show a difference depending on the class types. In the analysis of gender, the total mean scores are skewed to the hearer-oriented strategy. Compared with differences of class type, the factor of gender rarely influences the use of perspectives. This study suggests that various types of perspectives should be taught to the college learners of English.

The purpose of the study is to examine how Korean EFL learners' knowledge of syntactic islands is represented in their interlanguage grammars of English, focusing on the correlation between proficiency and acceptability of syntactic islands. For this purpose, it explores whether Korean EFL learners display native-like island effects in all types of syntactic islands as their proficiency. It is based on the syntactic acceptability-rating experiment designed by Sprouse et al.(2012), considering factorial design, including two factors, Structure and Gap. The subjects in experimental group were divided into three groups-basic, intermediate, and advanced group-based on the scores of the cloze test and the results in the experiment were compared with English native speakers'. Advanced EFL learners' island effects are shown statistically significantly in subject and adjunct islands at the same level as native speakers' acceptability. Also some of advanced EFL learners are as sensitive to island vs. non-island distinctions as L1 native speakers are. In conclusion, Korean EFL learners can acquire the knowledge of syntactic island structures based on Universal Grammar.

The purpose of this article is to approach Konglish, which is the Korean style broken English, from the perspective of nativism not from the behavioristic one. I view Konglish as a natural language development in the process of Korean’s acquiring English as a foreign language, which is very similar to the interlanguage development made by other foreign language speakers of English. To explain the features of Konglish in detail, I provide very specific reasons and examples via three aspects such as linguistic(L1 transfer), socio-psycholinguistic, and educational ones. According to my own experience and observation as an EFL learner and teacher educator in Korea, I suspect that Konglish is, by and large, due to the English language education at Korean public schools from K-12, including the curriculum, teachers, learning materials, and assessment methods. Based on the critical analysis of each of these factors, I offer several practically applicable ideas and solutions in order to change the current situation, bringing in a small paradigm shift for English language education at Korean public schools. In conclusion, I do not hesitate to strongly voice that Konglish is not a shameful and negative phenomenon made by L1 transfer over English but an active and positive sign for Korean speakers of English to develop their English communication skills.

This study examines instances of codeswitching in the English writing of Korean middle school students. A corpus of 98 student journals was constructed and analyzed for switches to and from Korean and Roman scripts. Although there are many reasons why people codeswitch, these switches are motivated by gaps in the learners' lexicons. They therefore offer insight into what language the learners lack but need to communicate about their lives. The results show that recourse to the mother tongue is done far more often for nouns than any other part of speech. Interestingly, words borrowed from English are often rendered in Korean rather than English. This study examines the frequency of codeswitching and examines the semantic properties of the codeswitched items. Having determined areas of lexical gaps, the article suggests how direct instruction in these areas would benefit students as developing writers.

The purpose of this study is to investigate pragmatic competence on request for Korean college learners. 175 college students were divided into two groups by the test score of English: low level(81) and high level(94). Ten DCT items on request were provided for the students and written down the answers in each situation. Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Patterns(CCSARP) coding scheme was used for written responses of request sequences. This study analyzed supportive moves in various aspects. Although the learners used the grounder strategy, they also used the apology strategy as a higher rate. They also made use of the different supportive moves such as disarmer, imposition minimizer, sweeter, preparatory, promise of reward, etc. The frequency rate of other eight strategies except grounder strategy was somewhat different depending on the levels. Most learners in low and high level heavily skewed to the grounder because of their lack of the pragmatic abilities. The findings imply that the teachers in EFL classroom should teach the supportive strategies of request by means of real data.

This research intends to identify some of the common lexico-grammatical errors Korean secondary school students make in learning English. The data used in this research consists of an about 33,000-word corpus of English written by grade 9 and 10 students. The corpus was scanned to retrieve all examples of misuse of such error-prone word forms as BECAUSE, HAVE, MANY, MUCH, IF, and A LOT OF, using the standard text retrieval software tool, WordSmith Tools. These word forms were compared with those in English textbooks used in middle school English classes in order to investigate how close students' use of these forms is to the taught forms. Overall, it is necessary to provide the students with corpus-based learning methods to acquire some problematic word forms, such as BECAUSE, MANY and A LOT OF. Techniques of drawing students' attention to form or noticing features of targeted items can be useful as well. Although this research could not find all the most common errors the students produce in learning English, it could be one way of identifying significant features of learner errors, in particular areas of common difficulty in writing. It could also play an important role in developing more systematic learner language research and designing learner corpus-based teaching techniques and materials.

This study primarily aims at identifying and classifying the most frequently occurring error types in Korean university students’ written work. This study will also try to find some ways to prevent those errors by discussing the issue of error treatment. A total of one hundred and fifteen Korean university students participated for two consecutive studies. The writing samples were collected and errors were extracted from native speaker teachers’ error correction of student writing. After the errors were identified, they were analyzed based on a modified linguistic category taxonomy (Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982). In this study, the most common errors were ‘Noun Phrase’ errors, followed by ‘Verb Phrase’ errors. This possibly suggests the existence of interlanguage and implies that the differences in the two language systems or the absence of certain features in L1 (Korean) caused difficulty in their application in L2 (English) in using the correct forms. Pedagogical implications based on the findings are then discussed.

One important individual characteristic exerting influence over the acquisition of pragmatic knowledge is pragmatic learning strategies. As it is in nascent stages of research interest, an attempt was made to investigate whether Iranian EFL learners’ comprehension of conversational implicature was predicted by memory, cognitive, metacognitive, social, compensation, and affective interlanguage pragmatic learning strategies. Totally, 376 upper-intermediate and advanced EFL learners, on the basis of their performance on a sample of Oxford Quick Placement Test, participated in this investigation. To carry out the present study, three data collection instruments were utilized including: Oxford Quick Placement Test, Interlanguage Pragmatic Learning Strategies Inventory, and Conversational Implicature Test. The hypothesized model was tested employing Amos 24 statistical package and revealed that Iranian EFL learners’ conversational implicature was predicted by cognitive, metacognitive and compensation interlanguage pragmatic learning strategies. Moreover, EFL learners’ cognitive IPLS was identified to be the strongest predictor (β= 0.45, p<.05) in predicting conversational implicature. This study concludes that the cognitive, metacognitive and compensation IPLS strategies can promote EFL learners’ comprehension of conversational implicature. The findings of the study can contribute to EFL teachers to implement more interlanguage pragmatic learning strategies in their classroom activities to develop better comprehension of conversational implicature and integrate this knowledge into the overall learning experiences.

از آنجایی کھ اینگونھ پژوھش ھا در مرحلھ ابتدایی پژوھشی قرار دارند، در این مقالھ تلاش شد تا بھ بررسی این موضوع پرداختھ شود کھ آیا درک زبان آموزان ایرانی از معانی ضمنی توسط استراتژی ھای حافظھ ای، شناختی، فراشناختی، اجتماعی، جبرانی، و عاطفی پیش بینی می شود؟ در مجموع 376 زبان آموز زبان انگلیسی سطح متوسط و پیشرفتھ بر اساس عملکردشان درنمونھ آزمون تعیین سطح برای انجام پژوھش انتخاب شدند. ھمچنین از سھ ابزار جم عآوری داده از جملھ آزمون تعیین سطح آکسفورد، پرسشنامھ استراتژی یادگیری بین زبانی منظور شناسی و آزمون درک معانی ضمنی استفاده شد. نتایج معادلات ساختاری پژوھش حاضر نشان داد کھ استراتژی ھای یادگیری شناختی، فراشناختی و جبرانی، درک معانی ضمنی مکالمھ زبان آموزان ایرانی را پیش بینی می کنند. ھمچنین،استراتژی یادگیری شناختی فراگیران زبان در پیشبینی درک مفاھیم ضمنی مکالمھ نقش بسیار مھمی را ایفا می کند. یافتھھای این مطالعھ میتواند بھ معلمان زبان انگلیسی کمک کند تا استراتژی ھای یادگیری شناختی،فراشناختی و جبرانی را در فعالی تھای کلاسی خود پیادهسازی کنند تا بدین وسیلھ بھ درک بھتری از مفاھیم ضمنی مکالمھ دست یابند واز این دانش در تجربیات یادگیری کلی استفاده نمایند.

This study aims to investigate the refusal productions by Thai learners of Korean in second language and foreign language environment to see how language exposure influences learners’ acquisition of pragmatic knowledge. Four sample groups are recruited for this study: 70 Korean native speakers (KNS); 30 Thai learners of Korean in a second language environment (KSL); 30 Thai learners who majored in Korean in a foreign language environment (KFL-major) and 30 Thai learners minored in Korean in a foreign language environment (KFL-minor). Korean language exposure questionnaire and a written discourse completion task (WDCT) are used to collect the data. The data from the native Korean speakers (KNS) is used as the baseline of the analysis. The results show that both power and social distance have effect on the realization of refusals. The refusals by KFL-minor deviate more from the Korean norm than those by the KSL and the KFL-major, but there are no major contrast between the KSL and the KFL-major. This suggests amount of language exposure influences the acquisition of pragmatic knowledge over the learning environment.

This small-scale qualitative study explores how systematic spoken error analysis may illuminate second language (L2) development among Bangla-speaking learners of English. Drawing on Ellis and Barkhuizen’s (2005) performance analysis framework, the study examines grammatical, lexical, and pragmatic deviations in the spontaneous spoken output of two postgraduate learners during a task-based sociolinguistic interview. Adopting an interpretive analytic approach, analysis of the transcribed interaction identifies recurring patterns in interrogative formation, reliance on formulaic sequences, and L1-influenced pragmatic routines. While these features appear to support communicative fluency and interactional alignment, they also suggest partial proceduralisation of English morphosyntax and emerging limitations in register sensitivity. The findings indicate that spoken deviations may function not only as errors but also as contextually meaningful indicators of learners’ developing interlanguage under real-time processing constraints. Situated within an under-researched English as a foreign language (EFL) context such as Bangladesh, the study offers exploratory, context-bound insights into spoken L2 development. Pedagogically, it suggests that integrating focused spoken-error analysis into classroom practice, for example, through guided reformulation and contrastive awareness tasks, may support more responsive and developmentally attuned oral instruction in low-input South Asian ESL environments.

This paper investigates the difference in the distributional patterns of four types of adverbs between native speakers and Korean EFL learners. An on-line grammaticality judgment task constructed based on the syntactic analysis for adverb placement was administered to 58 college students in Korea and 39 native speakers. Following Cinque (1999), we assume that adverbs are base-generated in the specifier of hierarchically ordered functional heads, and the data analysis supports the proposal. The findings in this study present both theoretical and pedagogical implications. Firstly, the data of native speakers on adverb placement support Cinque’s proposal. The positions above T were rated high for the high adverbs, such as evaluative and epistemic adverbs, and the lower positions below T were rated high for the low adverbs, such as frequency/habitual and manner adverbs. Secondly, unlike the native speakers, the Korean EFL learners did not tend to differentiate adverb types. Regardless of the adverb classes, they preferred sentence-marginal positions. Thirdly, although the complete developmental picture was not captured in this study, it is suggested that as learners advanced to higher proficiency level, they converge with native speakers judgments in adverb distribution patterns.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the not surface-apparent opacity resulting from the acquisition of English coronal fricative [s] by Korean learners of English. According to Cho & Lee (2001), Korean learners of English are likely to produce English target /s/ in the prevocalic position as tense alveolar fricative [s’]. Moreover, they palatalize [s’] before /i/, producing palatalized tense [ʃ’]. Palatalized tense [ʃ’] by Korean learners of English shows the not surface-apparent opacity because of the tense feature which is not in the phonemic inventory of English. In this paper, I attempt to resolve the opacity problem by employing OT-CC (McCarthy 2006a-d, 2007), which incorporates the derivational information with PREC(A, B). Based on OT-CC with Prec(A, B), this paper examines and analyses the opacity problem of palatalized tense [ʃ’] before /i/ for English target /s/. By doing so, I support the superiority of OT-CC.