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재미한인사회는 1965년 새로운 미국이민법이 통과된 이후 많은 변화를 경험하게 되었고, 가장 주목할 만한 변화 중 하나는 1.5세대 재미한인이 증가되었다는 것이다. “1.5세”라는 용어는 재미한인사회에서나 일반학계에서 쉽게 쓰이는 용어가 되었고, 일반적으로 “1.5세” 는 1세와 2세의 중간세대로, 이중언어, 이중문화를 경험하는 세대로 알려져 있다. 하지만 정확히 “1.5세”가 누구를 정의하고 있는지, 1.5세대들은 이민자로서 어떠한 경험을 하는지에 대한 연구는 아직도 부족한 상황이다. 본 연구는 “1.5세” 재미한인 안의 다양성과, “1.5세” 라는 용어를 정의하는데 따르는 어려움, 1.5세 재미한인들의 미국 공립학교 안에서의 경험들을 검토하였다. 연구결과에 따르면 청소년기에 이민을 온 “1.5세” 는 유년기에 이민을 온 “1. 5세” 에 비해서 한국어와 한국문화에 대한 다른 이해를 가지고 있으며, 미국 이민 이후 청년기의 성장과정과 문화적 적응이라는 두 가지 과제를 함께 경험함으로 오는 어려움이 더 컸다. 이처럼 “1.5세” 안에는 다양한 이민과정과 문화적 적응의 경험을 가진 여러 소집단이 포함되어 있으므로 1.5세를 한마디로 규명하는 것은 어려운 과제임을 발견하였다. 이와 같은 1.5세 안의 여러 다양성에도 불구하고, 많은 1.5세들은 대부분 이민초기 미국 공립학교생활을 시작하면서 영어습득에 대한 어려움, 사회적 소외감, 인종차별, 부정적 자기정체성 발달 등을 경험하고 있었으며, 특히 양질의 영어교육을 받지 못했을 때, 영어와 한국어 문제를 발달시킬 수 있는 어려움을 갖고 있는 것으로 나타났다. “1.5세 재미한인들”의 다양한 삶과 교육적 경험에 대한 보다 정확한 이해를 위해서는 앞으로 지속적인 연구가 필요하다.

One of the significant changes that happened in the Korean American community after the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 is the rise of 1.5 generation Korean Americans. Although “1.5 generation” has become a popular term commonly used within the Korean American community and academia, and they are known to be bilingual and bicultural Korean Americans who are between first and second generation immigrants, understanding exactly who they are and what they are going through as immigrants in the U.S. have not been thoroughly researched. This study examined some of the challenges in defining the term “1.5 generation,” the diversity within 1.5 generation Korean Americans, and educational experiences of 1.5 generation. The finding of this study shows that 1.5 generation who immigrated to the U.S. as adolescents, compared to those who immigrated as children, have different understanding of Korean language and culture and face greater adjustment challenges after their immigration because they face both adolescence and acculturation at the same time. Because there is such diversity within 1.5 generation Korean Americans in terms of their immigration and acculturation experiences, developing an accurate definition of 1.5 generation can be a complicated task. Despite the diversity found within this population, however, most 1.5 generation Korean Americans seem to share the difficulty of learning English, social isolation, racism and the development of negative identity as they first enter U.S. public schools, and the lack of quality English education puts some of 1.5 generation Korean Americans in a vulnerable place where they can develop both Korean and English literacy problems. More studies are needed to fully understand the diverse life and educational experiences of 1.5 generation Korean American population.

The benefits of using films/movies in the English language classroom to teach culture and cultural awareness in addition to the four skills of language acquisition have been well documented. This study attempts to examine how Korean Americans are portrayed and depicted in Hollywood films which have traditionally reduced the complexity of Asian nations and cultures into simplified stereotypes. Most Asian characters were stereotyped as the “Yellow Peril,” “Lotus Blossom,” “Dragon Lady,” “Charlie Chan,” or “Dr. Fu Manchu.” Though these negative stereotypes were commonly used in early Hollywood films, they continue to appear in many contemporary films. In recent years, additional stereotypes of Asians and Asian Americans have appeared, such as the “Nerdy Shy Guy,” the “Anti-Model Minority,” and “The Greedy Merchant.” The study also examines how Hollywood deals with Korean women who do not fit the classic and contemporary negative Hollywood stereotypes. The study concludes by suggesting methods for identifying the negative stereotypes presented in Hollywood films in the English language classroom in order to raise awareness and when necessary to challenge these stereotypes of Asians and Asian Americans in films or other forms of media.

이 연구는 재미 한인의 문화변용과 식품 섭취 패턴에 대하여 조사함으로써 재미 한인들의 식생활 실태를 파악하고 문화변용 정도와 식품 섭취 패턴과의 관계를 알아보고자 미국 시카고 지역에 거주하는 재미 한인 193명(남자 87명, 여자 106명)을 대상으로 실시하였으며 다음과 같은 결과를 얻었다. 첫째, 문화변용 정도가 높은 군은 나이가 적고, 미국 거주기간, 교육기간이 길고, 신체질량지수가 높았다. 문화변용 정도가 낮은 군은 소화기 질환과 관절염 발병률이 유의적으로 높았으며 이는 맵고 짜게 먹는 한국인의 식사습관과 칼슘이 풍부한 우유 및 유제품의 섭취가 낮은 것과 관계가 있는 것으로 보인다. 둘째, 남녀별로 식품군별 식품 섭취 패턴을 조사한 결과 채소류는 여자가 남자에 비해 섭취가 높았으며, 여자는 식물성 식품을 남자는 동물성 식품을 많이 섭취하고 있는 것으로 나타났다. 셋째, 문화변용 정도가 높은 군은 육류 등 동물성 식품, 우유 및 유제품, 유지류의 섭취가 높았고, 문화변용 정도가 낮은 군은 채소류, 과일류 등 식물성 식품과 생선류, 콩류, 참기름 등의 섭취가 높았다. 넷째, 문화변용 정도는 곡류, 우유 및 유제품 섭취와는 양의 상관관계, 채소류와는 음의 상관관계가 나타났다. 이 연구에서 문화변용 정도가 높을수록 곡류, 우유 및 유제품 섭취가 높고, 채소류 섭취는 낮으므로 문화변용 정도가 높은 군을 대상으로 채소, 과일, 생선, 우유 섭취 증가를 위한 교육이 필요하며, 이러한 식생활 교육을 통해 재미한인의 건강 유지 및 질병 예방에 기여할 것으로 보인다.

This study investigated acculturation and food intake patterns of Korean Americans to examine their dietary life and relationship between acculturation level and food intake pattern. The subjects were 193 Korean Americans(87 men and 106 women) living in Chicago, America. Main results from this study are as follows. First, The high-acculturated group showed younger age, longer length of residence in America and higher education and Body Mass Index. The low-acculturated group demonstrated significantly higher morbidity of digestive diseases and arthritis. Second, as a result of examining food intake patterns by food groups, it was found that vegetables were consumed more in women than in men and women consumed more plant foods and men consumed more animal foods. Third, while the high-acculturation group consumed more frequent animal foods including meats, milk and dairy products, the low-acculturation group consumed more frequent plant foods such as vegetables and fruits, fishes, beans and sesame oil. Fourth, acculturation had positive correlations with grains, milk and negative correlations with vegetables. Korean Americans experienced changes in their dietary habits and since the higher acculturation was consumed more frequent grains, milk and less frequent vegetables, education for increasing intake frequency of vegetables, fruits, fishes, and milk with high acculturation group is required. It is considered that such a dietary life education will contribute to maintenance of good health and prevention of diseases in Korean Americans.

This study was conducted to find associations of obesity, exercise pattern and nutrient intakes in Korean American immigrants residing in North Western parts of USA. The structured survey forms and food frequency questionnaire that covered 67 food items were used. There was a significant difference in height for subjects by gender and age. However, the weight of females became heavier with increasing age in contrast to males. There was a great difference in BMI between the male and female group in the youngest adult group compared to the aging adults. Significant age difference in exercise pattern was shown. Dietary fiber and sodium intakes were higher in the elderly than young ones in female group. In the same young adult group Zn intakes was the highest in the male group and the lowest in the female group. Folate intakes were higher in females than in males. Strong positive correlations among height, weight and BMI were shown. Zn intake was significantly correlated with weight, height, and exercise pattern in the study. Furthermore, Zn was correlated with sodium, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin E and cholesterol.

올해 2019년 3.1운동 및 대한민국임시정부 수립 100주년을 맞으며 국내뿐 아니라 미국을 비롯한 전세계 한인사회 곳곳에서 다양한 기념행사가 개최되었다. 본 논문에서는미국의 필라델피아와 로스앤젤레스 지역을 중심으로 재미한인들에 의한 3.1운동 및 임시정부 수립 100주년 기념사업의 취지와 행사내용을 살펴보고 그 계획 및 추진과정을고찰하였다. 연구방법으로는 문헌자료, 한인언론기사, 한인회자료, 국가보훈처 보도자료, 한인단체 웹사이트 인터넷검색과 설문조사를 통하여 자료를 수집하고 분석하였다. 우선 3.1운동 100주년 기념행사와 관련된 역사적 배경으로 ‘미국내 3.1운동의 영향’, ‘해방 이전 재미한인단체’, 그리고‘ 제1차 한인회의’에 관해서 살펴보았다. 다음으로 기념사업 준비와 실행을 위해 활용된 다양한 자원과 조직을 파악하고, 주요 행사장소에 주목함으로써 공간의 상징성과 미주한인의 도시 내의 위상에 대해 조사하였다. 본 연구를통해 한국독립운동사, 재미한인사의 맥락에서 미국에서의 3.1운동의 역사적, 현재적 의미를 재조명하고, 공공외교의 주체로서의 재미한인의 기여와 역할을 고찰하였다. 결언에서는 미주독립운동에 관한 역사적 연구의 활성화와 재조명의 필요성에 대해 강조하며 미주에서의 독립운동사적지와 독립운동가의 지속적인 발굴을 제안하였다.

This year, Koreans at home and abroad held a variety of events and activities to celebrate the 100th anniversary of March 1st Korean Independence Movement Day and the Establishment of the Korean Provisional Government. This article examined why and how Korean Americans, particularly those residing in Philadelphia and the Los Angeles area, organized and participated in such celebrations. Methodologically, this study employed existing literature, newspaper articles, documents and online sources from Korean American organizations and South Korea’s Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs, as well as survey data. First, as historical background, information on the“ Impacts of the March 1st Korean Independence Movement on then Korean Americans,” “Korean American Organizations before Korean Independence,” and “The First Korean Congress” were gathered. Then, this article analyzed the actual process of Korean Americans’ preparation for and execution of events commemorating the 100th anniversary of March 1st Korean Independence Movement Day, paying particular attention to the historical and present meaning and significance of event venues. This research reappraised the implications of the March 1st Korean Independence Movement in the U.S. both in the past and present, as well as assessed modern Korean Americans’ involvement in public diplomacy in American society in general. The findings suggested the importance of revitalizing research on the contributions of earlier generations of Korean Americans to the Korean independence movement and also discovering historic sites and as yet unrecognized Korean American leaders who played a role in their home country’s independence movement.

한인들의 미국 이주역사가 100여 년이 지난 오늘 한인교회는 여러 변화를 맞이 하고 있다. 이에 본 연구에서는 1세, 1.5세, 2세들이 한인교회를 선택하는 이유, 그들이 생각하는 한인교회 안의 한국문화 및 한인교회에 부여하는 역할과 의미를 살펴보았다. 16명과의 인터뷰 결과 1세, 1.5세들은 외로움, 언어, 자녀들을 위해 한인교회에 참석하고 있으나 기술의 발전으로 그 형태가 변하는 추세인 것으로 나 타났다. 반면 영어권 세대들은 부모의 선택으로 한인교회를 출석하게 되었고 익숙 함, 편안함 등으로 남게 된 것으로 나타났다. 또한 한인교회 안의 한국문화로서 남 성주의적 문화와 한국교회 문화의 영향이 도출되었다. 아울러 2세들에게는 한인 교회의 한국식 운영 방식이 어렵게 다가오지만 모국의 뿌리와 한국 문화, 정서를 익힐 수 있는 공간으로 인식하였다. 마지막으로 모든 세대의 참여자들이 한인교회 의 주요 역할이 자신의 신앙성장에 도움을 주는 곳으로 생각했지만 2세들의 경우 익숙함, 친숙함 등이 한인교회를 선택하는 주된 이유 중 하나로 나타났다.

It has been over a century since Korean immigrants first immigrated to the United States. Korean churches, which functioned as the social centers of Korean communities in the U.S., are now facing various challenges. The purpose of the current study is to examine the role of Korean churches from the perspectives of 1st, 1.5, and 2nd generation Korean Americans, and identify why they choose Korean churches and the meaning they ascribe to the religious community. Interviews with 16 participants revealed that 1stand 1.5-generation Korean Americans choose Korean churches because of language, loneliness, and ethnic resources for their children, but findings show that these choices are changing due to technological advancements. As for the 2nd generation, findings show that they initially began attending Korean churches because of their parents; however, they remained because of the familiarity and comfort Korean churches provide. Moreover, findings suggest that participants identify Korean churches as holding masculine, patriarchal culture and having Korean ways of doing things when it comes to their operation. Although 2nd-generation Koreans find these Korean ways of doing things challenging, they identified Korean churches as places where they can learn about their ethnic roots, Korean culture, and Korean sentiments. Most importantly, across generations, Korean churches were identified as places where they can grow in faith rather than as locales for social functions.

경찰신뢰도에 대한 다양한 연구에도 불구하고 국내에서 도구적·표현적 인식모형의 이론적 틀 속에서 진행된 연구는 많지 않고 우리 시민들과 재미한인들을 비교한 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 이 연구는 경찰에 대한 신뢰도에 영향을 미치는 요인을 도구적 인식모형과 표현적 인식모형으로 분류하여 분석의 틀을 구축하고 654명의 서울시민들과 209명의 미시간주 디트로이트 대도시권 한인들에 대한 설문자료를 토대로 비교 검증하였다. 분석결과 서울시민 또는 디트로이트 한인으로 구분된 시민들의 소속도시가 경찰신뢰도에 대한 16%의 설명력을 보였다. 가설의 방향과 반대로 한 사회의 소수인종인 디트로이트 한인들보다 서울시민들의 경찰에 대한 신뢰도가 매우 유의미하게 낮은 수준이었다. 표현적 인식모형의 설명력이 도구적 인식모형에 비해 괄목할만하게 높았으며, 동네 주민들 간 응집력에 대한 인식이 서울시민과 디트로이트 대도시권 한인들 모두에게 있어서 가장 큰 영향력을 보였다. 도구적 인식모형 중에서는 범죄두려움이 유의미한 효과를 보였는데 흥미롭게도 서울시민들과 디트로이트 한인들 간 그 영향의 방향은 반대였다. 이러한 결과는 경찰이 범죄와 관련된 직접적인 현안에만 집중하기보다는 지역사회의 전통적인 가치와 질서의 보존 등 보다 근원적인 주민들의 삶의 질 관리에도 주목할 필요가 있음을 보여줌과 더불어 우리시민들과 외국계 한인들 간 비교연구의 가능성을 제시하고 있다.

Despite numerous studies on confidence in the police, relatively less effort has been made to test instrumental and expressive models of public confidence in policing especially in the Korean context. Even less attempt was made to compare confidence in policing between Koreans and Korean Americans. To fill this void, this study tested instrumental and expressive models of public confidence in policing simultaneously, by using the sample of 654 Seoul citizens and 209 Korean Americans in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, Michigan. Surprisingly nation and city group affiliation (Seoul versus Detroit) explained almost 16% of public confidence in policing. Compared to Korean Americans in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, Seoul citizens expressed significantly lower confidence in policing, which was contrary to the hypothesis. In addition, the expressive model was much better than the instrumental model in explaining confidence in policing. Especially, the variable ‘perceptions of neighborhood cohesion’ in the expressive model was the most powerful variable for both Seoul citizens and Korean Americans. Fear of crime in the instrumental model was significant, but the direction was the opposite between Seoul citizens and Korean Americans. These results show the possibility of comparative studies between Koreans and Korean Americans as well as the promising aspect of community oriented policing and community involvement as strategies in policing.

『조용한 오딧세이: 미국의 한국인 여성 개척자』는 지난 20세기 3대 집안이 겪었던 경험과 역사를 재현하며 한국계 미국인의 인종, 정치, 성별에 대한 요구 를 보여주었다. 이에 한국계 정체성에 대한 메어리 팩 리의 고유한 사고가 담겨 있다. 메어리 팩 리는 한국계로서 자신의 정체성을 정확하게 인식해야만 한국인 들이 미국 생활에 적응할 수 있다고 보고 인종차별을 적시하고 한국인들의 역사적 공헌을 재조명하며 정치적 정체성을 정당화했다. 또한, 성별 정체성 서사 측면에서 메어리 팩 리는 이중적 저항이라는 담론의 특징을 통해 가부장제와 인종주의로부터 억압된 한국계 여성들을 보여주었다. 그리고 다문화가 공존하 는 글로벌화 속에서 자신의 독특한 목소리로 한국계 미국인 여성으로서 강인한 모습을 구축했다. 동시에 한국 문화와 미국 백인 주류 문화의 충돌 속에서 자신 의 문화적 정체성을 탐구하여 비주류 문화집단의 문화적 정체성 구축 문제를 효과적으로 해결하기 위한 방법을 제시하였다.

Quiet Odyssey: A Pioneer Korean Woman in America recounts a family history spanning nearly the entire 20th century, presenting the racial, political, and gender demands of Korean Americans, which embodies Mary Paik Lee’s unique reflections on Korean identity. Mary Paik Lee believes that only by correctly understanding their Korean identity, Koreans can adapt to American life. She confronts racial discrimination, retells the historical contributions of Koreans, and asserts their political identity. In her writings on gender identity, Mary Paik Lee demonstrates a discourse characteristic of dual resistance, showing that Korean women are constrained not only by patriarchy but also by racism. Against the globalization backdrop of multicultural coexistence, Mary Paik Lee voices her unique perspective, highlighting the resilience and spirit of Korean American women. She explores her cultural identity amidst the conflict between Korean culture and mainstream white American culture, offering effective solutions to the problem of cultural identity construction for subcultural groups.

변화하는 재미동포사회를 이해하기 위해서는 ‘차세대’들이 활동하는 다양한 커뮤니티와 단체들을 분석하는 것이 중요하다. 이에 본 연구는 차세대 재미동포단체의 현황 파악, 유형 분석 등을 그 목적으로 한다. 본 연구는 연구자가 구축한 차세대 단체 데이터셑을 통해 단체 의 특징, 유형 등을 분석하였다. 첫째, 본 연구를 통해 수집된 차세대 재미동포 단체는 165개 로, 지역별로는, 캘리포니아주, 뉴욕주, 텍사스주 등의 순서로 분포하는 것으로 나타났으며, 이는 미국 내 분포되어 있는 재미동포의 인구 구성을 잘 반영하고 있다. 단체 성격의 측면에 서는 학생단체가 전체의 44.2%를 차지하였고, 정체성 관련 단체가 22.4%를 차지하였고, 그 외에도 전문성 관련 단체가 전체의 13.9%를 차지하였다. 이민세대별 단체성격은 세대별로 차이를 보였는데, 재미동포 1.5세 중심의 단체들은 학생 단체가 전체의 74.5%를 차지하는 반면, 재미동포 1.5세와 2세가 함께 활동하는 단체의 경우에는 학생, 정체성, 전문성 등과 관 련된 단체 순으로 나타났다. 홈페이지의 언어 측면에서도 재미동포 1.5세와 2세가 함께 활 동하는 혼합형 단체의 경우에는 영어와 한국어 홈페이지를 모두 가지고 있는 비중이 높은 반면, 2세 중심의 단체는 영어 홈페이지만을 운영하는 것으로 나타났다. 존 베리(1997)의 문 화변용이론을 적용한 이민세대에 따른 단체 유형은 통합형, 모국지향형, 거주국지향형, 독 립형의 네 가지 유형으로 분류되었다. 혼합세대 단체와 1.5세 중심의 경우에는 거주국지향 형이 가장 많이 분포하는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 다음과 같은 시사점을 도출하였다. 재미동포단체와 개인들은 지역별, 직능별 등의 구분을 넘어선 재미동포로서 서로 연계할 수 있는 플랫폼과 방안을 고려할 수 있다. 소 외된 재미동포단체와 개인 중 한국적 정체성이 강한 단체 및 개인들을 적극적으로 활용할 필요가 있다.

In order to understand the changing Korean American society, it is necessary to analyze various communities and organizations in which the “next (future) generation” are active. This study aims to understand the current status and typology analysis of the next generation Korean Americans. This study analyzed the characteristics and types of organizations through the next-generation group dataset established by the author. First, 165 next-generation Korean American organizations were collected. The regional distribution of the organizations reflects the population composition of Korean-Americans in the United States. Student organizations accounted for 44.2% of the total, identity-related organizations accounted for 22.4%, and professional groups accounted for 13.9% of the total. There is a difference in organization aims by immigrant generation. In the case of groups centered on 1.5 generation Korean-Americans, student groups accounted for 74.5% of the total, whereas in the case of groups in which 1.5 generation and second generation participate together, students, identity, professionalism among others. In terms of the language of the homepage, it was found that in the case of mixed-type groups in which 1.5 generation and second generation are active together, the proportion of having both English and Korean websites is high, while the second-year-old-centered group operates only English websites. Group types according to immigrant generations applying Berry (1987)'s theory of cultural transformation were classified into four types: an integrated type, an isolated type, an assimilation type, and a marginalization type. In the case of mixed-generation groups and 1.5 generation organizations, assimilation types were found to be the most common. This study offers the following implications. Korean American organizations can consider platforms and plans that can connect with Korean-Americans who are Korean-Americans that go beyond divisions by region and function. It is necessary to actively utilize groups and individuals with strong Korean identity among the marginalized Korean American organizations.

한민족의 미주 이민 역사는 1세기 이상이 흘렀고, 미주의 대도시에는 대규모 한인사회가 형성 되어 한인 디아스포라 문화가 형성되었다. 본고는 2018년에 개최된 각종 음악공연을 통해 토론토 한인사회의 디아스포라 음악문화를 살펴보았다. 한인사회에서 한인교회가 차지하는 비중은 매우 막중하다. 한인교회는 한인사회 공동체와 음 악문화의 중심지 역할을 한다. 대부분의 한인 주최 공연이 “교인에 의한, 교인을 위한, 교인의” 행사이기에 교회는 공연장으로 최우선적으로 선택된다. 한인교회가 중산층에 의한 성장주의를 과시하는 장이고, 이는 교회에서 개최되는 아마추어 음악애호가들의 클래식음악 공연을 통해 드 러난다. 특히 토론토 한인들이 거주국의 문화를 선호하는 국민정체성은 서양음악 선호사상으로 드러난다. 전 세계적으로 확산된 K-pop은 토론토 한인사회에서도 인기가 많다. 그러나 토론토에 서는 티켓 구매력이 있는 중년세대가 선호하는 ‘7080세대’ 가수의 공연이 많다. 교회에서의 ‘찬양콘서트’를 개최하는 가수 출신의 목회자들은 한인사회에서 인기 있는 뮤지션이다. 한인 이민사회에서 전통음악은 ‘모국의 이미지’를 표상하는 상징이다. 그러나 한인들에게 전통 음악은 클래식음악과 대중음악에 밀린 ‘주변부의 음악’이다. 전통음악은 한인 단체에서 개최하는 행사에 ‘구색 맞추기’로 초청된다. 전통공연예술을 배우는 대상은 주로 언어 소통의 한계로 주류 사회에 쉽게 편입하기 어려운 중장년층 여성이다. 그렇기에 전통음악은 ‘과거의 유산’으로 치부된 다. 이는 미주 한인이 한민족으로서의 민족정체성이 긍정적이지 않다는 사실을 음악문화적으로 반영하는 것이다. 그리고 기독교계에서는 전통음악을 소홀히 여기고, 불교계에서는 전통음악을 중시한다. 불교계의 행사에는 사물놀이가 포함되고, 심지어 의식에 작법을 연행하기도 한다. 즉, 한인사회에서 민족정체성은 불교계에서 긍정적으로 나타난다.

The history of Korean immigrants to North America has passed more than a century. There are many Korean immigrant societies that has made diaspora culture in metropolitans of North America. However, there are few musicological studies of diaspora music yet. The study of Song Bang-song, investigated the music of Koreans in Toronto in 1974, is the only musicological study so far. In this paper, I explored the diaspora music culture of Korean immigrant society in Toronto by examining musical activities held in 2018. The Christian church is the most important in the Korean immigrant society. Most of Korean Canadians are Christians that the church is not only the religious center but also the center of the Korean community which sustains the Korean immigrant society. The church is also the center of diaspora music culture. Many concerts are held in churches which are located in the suburban area of the metropolitan due to the low rate of the land. Therefore, the church is not an appropriate place to held concerts with its inaccessibility and inefficiency as concert halls. However, Korean Canadians prefer to held concerts in churches because most of concerts are “by the believers, for the believers, and of the believers” of the church. Most of the repertories of concerts held in church are Western classical music. The amateur musicians who have achieved economic success hope to show up their social status as the middle class in church. Their musical preference is tended to Western classical music which symbolizes the status of the middle class, and the ‘national identity’ of the host country. With the globalization of K-pop, it is very popular in the Korean immigrant society. However, the popular musicians are not able to host their own concerts but have appear public in crowded events held by the Korean immigrant societies. Most of musicians appear in the Korean Canadian stages are out-of-fashioned singers who are adored by the elders who are able to purchase expensive tickets. Some musician-pastors are very popular with their ‘gospel concerts.’ The traditional music is the symbol of the ‘image of the motherland.’ However, the traditional music is the ‘peripheral music,’ besides the Western classical music and popular music. The traditional music is preserved by the elder women who have a hard time to join the majority due to their lack of language ability. It made that the traditional music is regarded as the ‘heritage of the past.’ The Buddhists, however, promote the traditional music. Buddhist temples run music schools for the samul nori percussion quartet. Buddhist dances are performed at the services at Pyeonghwasa Temple. The dual perception of Buddhism which preserves the traditional music and ‘ethnic identity’ and Christianity which disrespects the traditional music among Korean Canadians in Toronto reflects the same phenomena of the mother country. The Korean Christian churches are the center of the Western-oriented middle class Koreans who have negative view of ethnic identity. The Korean Buddhist temples still preserve and promote the traditional music and positive ethnic identity. This diaspora music culture is not limited in Toronto but found in most of Korean immigrant societies in North America.

More Asians and Asian American actors and actresses continue to appear in Hollywood films. However, many Hollywood films still portray Asians and Asian Americans in a negative manner as unassimilable and unacculturated minorities regardless of their generational status or fluency with the English language. This study examines the types of relationships that the two main Asian characters (Korean and Indian) in the film, Harold and Kumar Go to White Castle (Leiner, 2004), have with the other characters in the film and how these relationships reveal and highlight their inability to become assimilated into the dominant white American culture. The study also attempts to show how their inability to become assimilated affects their self-identity, attitude towards other co-ethnics, relationship with non-Asians, and romantic interests. The study maintains that though the stereotypes of Asians and Asian Americans are changing, the stereotypes still reflect Asians and Asian Americans as perpetual foreigners living in the United States.

1960년 대 이후 미국 대도심 흑인지역 내 한인 상권은 꾸준히 번창했다. 하지만 1990년 대 초 이후 이 지역을 떠나는 한인 이민자 사업자들의 수가 점차 늘기 시작했다. 본 논문은 도심 흑인지역을 이탈하는 한인 이민자 사업자들을 추적하고, 이들의 상업적 특성을 자영업 시장 내 구조적 위치의 관점에서 분석한다. 미국 시카고 지역의 한인 이민자 사업자 예순 여섯명에 대한 서베이 조사 결과, 한인들이 도심 흑인지역 내 이차시장을 이탈한 후 재정착하는 장소는 규모가 작고 노동강도는 높으며 지속기간은 짧은 한편 민족자원에 대한 의존도는 높고 공간적으로는 무정형적 형태를 띠는 민족 니치시장임임이 확인되었다. 조사 결과는 도심 흑인지역을 이탈하는 한인 이민자 사업자들의 경제적 정착과 적응 과정이 한인들보다 수세기 전 미국에 이민 온 유대인 상인집단과 비교해 사뭇 다르고 독특한 형태로 전개되고 있음을 시사한다.

Since the 1960s, a large number of Korean immigrant businesses have thrived in inner-city African American communities; however, starting in the early 1990s, Korean business owners gradually started exiting these areas. This paper tracks these exiter-owned businesses and investigates their characteristics in view of their structural locations in the entrepreneurial market. The results of a survey of sixty-six Korean immigrant business owners in the Chicago area reveal that the market into which exiters are drawn after departing from the secondary market in inner-city African American neighborhoods is the ethnic niche market characterized by the small scale of business, high labor intensity, short duration, amorphous spatial distribution, and heavy reliance on ethnic resources. The findings suggest that exiters’ incorporation into the American economy is unfolding in a distinct manner compared to that of the Jewish merchants who left inner-city African American neighborhoods several decades before Koreans, due to changes in environmental conditions such as a prolonged economic recession and heightened intra- and inter-ethnic competition.

지신밟기는 정초에 지신을 밟아줌으로써 마을의 평화와 풍작 및 다복을 기원하면서 마을 공동체 단위로 벌이는 굿의 하나이다. 지신을 다스린다는 점에서 공간과 밀접한 관계를 가지고 있으며, 풍작을 기원한다는 점에서 농촌사회 및 농촌 사회 구성원과 관련이 깊다. 그런데, 로스앤젤레스 한인 타운에서의 지신밟기는 그 기원은 한국의 지신밟기에 두고 있는 것이지만 달라진 연행 주체, 연행 공간 및 환경 속에서 1990년 이후 17년 동안 진행되면서 자아 및 공동체의 정체성을 대외적으로 표출하는 의미가 강하게 내포되어 있다. 또한 규칙적인 지신밟기의 연행은 그 거리와 공간을 공연자인 한인들의 거리로 인식하게 하는 기능을 하고 있다.로스앤젤레스에서의 지신밟기의 의미에 대해서는 연행자의 입장과 외부적 시각을 통해 살펴보았다. 연행자의 입장을 통해 살펴본 지신밟기는 번영과 안녕을 기원하는 의미 이외에 학생들이 공연과 풍물을 익히면서 찾아낸 자아 및 공동체의 정체성을 대외적으로 표출하는 의미가 있음을 알 수 있다. 외부적 시각을 통해서도 지신밟기는 번성, 평화, 공연 및 정체성의 문제와 관련되어 있음을 알 수 있는데, 연행자의 입장과는 달리 한인 타운에서의 학생들의 지신밟기 연행에 대해 긍정적인 평가와 부정적인 평가가 공존하고 있다. 긍정적인 견해를 보인 사람들은 학생들의 지신밟기는 유용할 뿐 아니라 재미있고 흥미로운 공연이며, 전통 민속을 통해 공동체의 정체성을 대외적으로 드러낸 것에 대해 자긍심을 표현하였다. 반면, 부정적 견해를 드러낸 사람들은 성가실 뿐 아니라 볼거리가 없는 공연이고 한인 공동체의 정체성을 드러내어 타민족 공동체와 구분하는 일을 할 필요는 없다는 견해를 보이고 있었다.로스앤젤레스에서의 지신밟기의 연행은 한국에서와 같이 지신밟기에 참여한 모든 공동체의 대동 통합을 강조하지 않는다. 공동체의 결속을 강조하는 것은 사실이지만 지신밟기에 익숙할 수 없는 타민족 공동체와의 구분과 병행이 동시적으로 일어나고 있다고 할 수 있다.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to assess Korean Americans’ (KAs) health and cultural beliefs about colorectal cancer (CRC) and their CRC screening utilization in order to understand how health and cultural beliefs play a role in CRC screening utilization and why KAs have a low rate of CRC screening. Methods: Face-to-face, individual interviews with 26 Korean immigrants aged 50 and older were conducted in Korean. A semi-structured interview guide with open-ended questions was used to explore participants’ health and cultural beliefs about CRC and CRC screening. Recorded audio interviews were transcribed verbatim in Korean and coded using thematic analysis. Results: The themes that emerged from analyzing the individual interview data were: (a) valuing their families before themselves; (b) seeing a doctor only if they have symptoms; (c) believing that they would not get CRC; (d) balancing the will to stay healthy and fatalism; and (e) refusing health information. Conclusion: Results show the critical need for in-depth understanding of unique health and cultural beliefs about CRC screening in KAs. These beliefs could be useful for future intervention strategies to change health and cultural beliefs in order to increase CRC screening participation in KAs.

Purpose We compared the nutrient profiles of hypertensive Korean-Americans, non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks with those of normotensive Korean-Americans, Whites, and Blacks. Methods This study was a cross-sectional comparative design of nutrient profiles among three ethnic groups. Korean-Americans were interviewed at Korean-American health clinics and churches in Chicago and data were collected by the 24-hour dietary recall method. Age- and sex-matched data of non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks were selected from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for comparison. Descriptive statistics, one way ANOVA with post hoc test, and the propensity score matching method within each hypertensive and normotensive group were used for data analysis. Subjects included 102 subjects with hypertension (Korean-Americans, n = 37; Whites, n = 37; Blacks, n = 28), and 149 subjects without hypertension (Korean-Americans, n = 55; Whites, n = 55; Blacks, n = 39) for final statistical analyses. Results Significant differences in nutrient profiles among the three groups were as follows. In both hypertensive and normotensive groups, Korean-Americans consumed less energy from fat and saturated fatty acids and more energy from carbohydrates than did Whites and Blacks. All three ethnic groups exceeded the dietary reference intakes of sodium, but did not meet those of calcium and potassium. Conclusion The findings suggest that protein may be needed to replace excessive carbohydrate intake in Korean-Americans and to replace fat intake in Whites and Blacks. Health professionals need to emphasize the importance of increasing calcium and potassium intake and decreasing sodium intake in their nutrition education for these ethnic groups to help prevent and control hypertension. [Asian Nursing Research 2008;2(3):141?149]

Purpose: The purpose of present study was to explore relationship between physical activity (PA) behavior and self-efficacy among older Korean-Americans (OKAs) based on reviewing major theories that are used to understand PA behavior, particularly as they relate to older adults within sociocultural contexts. Methods: 151 OKAs, living in California, were recruited and interviewed once. Self-efficacy and PA level were measured by Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale, Community Healthy Activities Model Program for Seniors (K-CHAMPS) questionnaire, respectively. Results: 82.8% of OKA women and 72.4% of OKA men had relatively low (38.8 ± 29.3) self-efficacy related to PA. Exercise self-efficacy was statistically significant and positively associated with frequency for moderate and greater PA (r = 0.25, p ＜ .01), frequency for all listed PA (r = 0.21, p ＜ .05), caloric expenditure for moderate and greater PA (r = 0.23, p ＜ .01), and caloric expenditure for all listed PA (r = 0.31, p ＜ .01). Conclusion: Social Cognitive Theory including self-efficacy can provide insight about how to shape strategies that encourage OKAs to adhere to regular PA because it focuses on environmental as well as personal factors. Increased efforts are needed to understand the other factors associated with being active in OKAs.

Korean Americans have been known for their high affiliation with Christian churches and frequent attendance to their religious communities. Given the religious salience, we examined how attachment to God and religious coping influence depressive symptoms among 214 Korean immigrants in the face of distress from immigration. We hypothesized a path model based on the assumption that the internal working model of attachment to God manifests as religious coping which is attachment behavior. The results supported the hypothesized path model with good model fit indices. Also, it was found that negative religious coping directly predicts depression and mediates the effect of anxious attachment to God on depression. The limitations and implications were discussed.

Purpose: We evaluated changes in and factors affecting second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure in a panel study of nonsmokers. Methods: This study was based on data from a larger study of tobacco use among a representative sample of adults of Korean descent residing in California. Participants included 846 males and 1,399 females who were nonsmokers at baseline (2005e2006) and at follow-up (2007e2009). Participants were selected by probability sampling and were interviewed by telephone. Results: At baseline, 50.0% were exposed to any SHS, and at follow-up 2 years later, 60.4% were exposed to any SHS (p < .001). SHS exposure at baseline was associated with acculturation, employment, spousal smoking, and having a friend who smoked (p < .001). Employment, spousal smoking, and other family members smoking were associated with SHS at follow-up (p < .001). The odds ratio of SHS in the employed group declined from 2.01 at baseline to 1.53 at follow-up, that of the group having a smoking spouse increased from 1.88 to 2.36, and that of the group having other family members smoking increased from 1.20 to 1.69. Conclusions: We showed that SHS exposure increased among Korean American nonsmokers in California, and the most important variables explaining the change in SHS exposure involved smoking among others with whom the subject is associated. These findings could be used as objective evidence for developing public health policies to reduce SHS exposure.

This article explores the radical changes that South Korea have gone through in the last decade, and how these changes, in turn, have influenced and reshaped Korean American communities in the United States of America, especially within Korean-American immigrant churches and their views, and understanding of the new generations. It examines what is needed within Korean American immigrant communities and their churches in three-fold dimensions. First in the philosophical aspect, the emphasis of rationality and postmodern plurality becomes evident and challenges irrationally-enforced Christian belief in the traditional immigrant churches. New generations educated by critical rationality and pluralistic inclusiveness will not honor the current exclusiveness. Second, the transitions of the Korea’s rapid economic developments and the upgraded economic status of Korean-American immigrants challenge the ultimate goal and meaning of people’s spiritual life. The traditional and typical message of church focusing on individual survival and prosperity needs to be transformed with the message of community service and responsibility. Third, the cultural transition of the Korean wave, called Hallyu, unexpectedly but powerfully changed the Korean-American identity, especially the view their own Korean heritage. Postmodern anti-authoritarianism requires that the traditional single, authoritative, and top-down leadership paradigm needs to be transformed into mutual, inclusive, and communal leadership. The new paradigm of digital communication accelerates and actualizes these transitions into the physical lives of Korean-Americans. The churches are required to be contextually relevant to and responsible for these powerful transitions and to claim the meaning and mission of its existence for the Korean-American immigrant community.