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This paper argues that (1) word-for-word literary translation is not possible; all it does is achieve what Chukovsky characterized as "imprecise precision" (1984:47), (2) contra to Nida (1969) and others, translation does not just mean translating meaning, and (3) therefore, a translator must negotiate an uneasy but inevitable compromise between accuracy and elegance. To make the translated passage just as pleasing, moving, and cathartic as the original passage as much as possible, a great deal of literary skill is required on the part of the translator. The iniquity of translators is not so much infidelity as infertility to produce an offspring worthy of an heir to the original writer. Translators are not traitors; they are traders, or literary merchants, who trade one form of linguistic unit for another, often meaning for form, or sense for sound, but sometimes form for meaning. A translator then is not a man of treason but is a tradesman.

Luce Irigaray, a French feminist psychoanalyst, criticizes the Lacanian psychoanalytic theory for its patriarchical basis on the masculine power and authority. In the article, we examine Lacanian psychoanalytic sexual differences at the standpoint of Irigaray's psychoanalytic theory. In contrast, we defend Lacanian theory from the perspective of semiotics.

Is there a pattern in history? How and why does social change occur? Are we to distinguish between the methods to be employed in the study of man and the study of nature? How does linguistic, or 'philological,' knowledge contribute to unearthing historical facts? These are the queries that Vico grappled with throughout his life. Vico, however, was an outsider to the intellectual atmosphere of his own day, dismissed as obscure, speculative, and unsound. Only after his death did he begin to inspire enthusiasm among diverse readers, and as long as we remain concerned with the queries mentioned above, Vico's reflections will come alive with contemporary relevance. Actually he has been regarded as the founder--unrecognized by his contemporaries--of the philosophy of history and as a thinker whose ideas anticipated such later intellectual movements as historicism, pragmatism, existentialism, and structuralism. There are many among modern minds who find Vico fascinating for his view of myth as concrete thought and of an age of myth as a necessary age in the intellectual evolution of the human race. James Joyce, for one, was deeply impressed by Vico's view on myth, on metaphor, on Homer, on language, on psychology, and much else besides. "My imagination grows when I read Vico," he once confessed, "as it doesn't when I read Freud or Jung." Some philosophers, critics, psychologists, social scientists and even geographers would describe themselves as 'Vichians,' sharing the view that Vico was a poet and a lawyer, a platonist and a baconian rolled into one. His refusal to be confined within any one discipline, his imaginative effort to understand different cultures, and his insight in dealing with some fundamental problems in the study of humanity all compel admiration and deserve to be emulated in our age--an age when the split between the literary and the scientific approaches to the understanding of society is widening into a chasm. Vico has left some of his most important ideas underdeveloped or even undeveloped, to be excavated and polished by us after our own fashion. It is surprising that Vico is still a man of obscure name in the academia of our country, Korea.

This research focuses on the humboldt's thought for language. In Korea, only two themes, “worldview” and “nation”, problem of “energeia” and “ergon”, was mostly researched. But we must research all together his thoughts, in order to understand his complete thoughts. His thoughts consist six themes :1. relation between thought and language.2. problem of language-generation.3. problem of translation.4. substance of language.5. worldview and nation.6. energeia and ergon. From this five themes, we can understand, what his origin thought is. Therefore, we explained sequentially five themes in our paper. The theme 1, 5 and 6 are often interpretated between the scholars in Korea. But the theme 2 and 3 are not yet known. Therefore, we tried to explain it in this paper, what the problem of language-generation and the problem of translation are.

Social scientists in North America, especially anthropologists, folklorists and linguists, who focus on the study language use and its connection to society, use a variety of labels to describe what they do. Among the best known are “anthropological linguistics”, “linguistic anthropology”, and “sociolinguistics”. All of these labels imply that their focus is on the study of language usage in society and culture for their teaching, research and publications. In this paper I am examining the intellectual issues and history that underlie the differences in the labels. The differences and similarities that characterize them are discussed. The author proposes “linguistic anthropology” as the most useful disciplinary terminology if the study of language combined with culture is to be “community-centric” and not only “profession-centric”. He encourages a renewed focus on working with communities. Also, a need to find ways to engage Indigenous members of minority language communities more actively should be a primary goal in the process of “academic” language work. This is important due to the loss rapid extinction of the many of the world’s languages. The author points out that it does matter what we call the work we do, as a label may carry a message of meaning, intent and focus.

Whitehead's discussion of language is not to be found in any one book or article. It is interwoven with his discussion of many other questions. He was, however, greatly concerned with the problem of symbolism in general and the uses of language. He regards language, spoken or written, as an instrument devised by men to aid them in their adjustment to the environment in which they live. Language is used for many specific purposes in the process of this adjustment. Words are employed not only to refer to data and to express emotions. They may be used also to record experiences, and thoughts about these experiences. Words also function as instruments in the organization of experiences as they are considered in retrospect. Thus words free us from the bondage of the immediate.And Whitehead's theory of meaning is implicit in his discussion of the functions of language. According to him, the human mind is functioning symbolically when some components of its experience elicit consciousness, beliefs, emotions, and usages, respecting other components of its experiences. The former set of components are the 'symbols', and the latter set constitute the 'meaning' of the symbols. Whitehead points out that one word may have several meanings, i.e. refer to several different data. In order to understand, thus, the meaning to which a word refers, it is sometimes very important to appreciate the system of thought within which a person is operating. Further, Whitehead's discussion of language includes a number of cogent warning the deficiencies of language, and hence the need for great care in the use of words. In fact, language developed gradually. For the most part we have created words designed to deal with practical problems. Attention focuses on the prominent features in a situation, in particular the changing aspects of things. With reference to such data our words are relatively adequate. However, this issues in an unfortunate superficiality. The enduring, the subtle, the complex and the general aspects of the universe do not have adequate verbal representation. For this reason, Whitehead's position concerning the uses of language in speculative philosophy is stated with pungent directness. The uncritical trust in the adequacy of language is one of the main errors to which philosophy is liable. Since ordinary language does not do justice to the generalities, profundities and complexities of life, it is obvious that philosophy requires new words and phrases, or at least the revision of familiar words and phrases. Proceeding to develop the theme Whitehead contends that words and phrases must be stretched towards a generality foreign to their ordinary usage. In the same vein Whitehead refers to the need to realize that language which is the tool of philosophy needs to be redesigned just as in physical science available physical apparatus needs to be redesigned. But even these words and phrases, stretched or redesigned, are never completely adequate in philosophical speculations. They are, in his opinion, merely a great improvement over ordinary language or the language science, mathematics or symbolic logic.

So far I have reviewed the two controversial opinions of the North Korean and the South Korean linguists concerning the position of the Koguryeo language in the formation of Korean. Many South Korean scholars in favor of the Altaic Language Family Hypothesis argue that the ancient Korean language consisted of two different languages, one of which was the northern dialect including four languages such as the Koguryeo language (the largest one within the area), the Puyo language, the Okche language, the Yemaek language , and the other was the southern dialect, the largest language of which is the Shinla language. On the other hand, the linguists of North Korea claim that in Koguryeo and Shinla the same language was spoken and that modern Korean is formed based on the Koguryeo language. Before evaluating which of these claims is correct I would like to turn to the scarcity of the linguistic data of the Koguryeo language. Compared with the pragmatic methodology of the South Korean linguists in the studies on the Altaic affinity of Korean, the North Korean scholars need to present still more evidences in order to support their argument. In Chung (1993) I argued that studies on the genealogy of the Korean language or history had to be performed regardless of the political purpose or for the purposes. We should admit the historical fact that there had been many tribal states in the Korean peninsula before the ancient Korean stage, those of which had been emerged to become three kingdoms. Those kingdoms were unified by Shinla, which was connected to Koryeo Dynasty. We cannot disregard the fact that the Korean language has been developed hand in hand with these historical process with those steps related with each age. The first thing we should do right now is to collect the remaining data of the Koguryeo language recorded in the old written materials, which have been found in North Korea as many as possible. Also, I hope that the linguists of South Korea achieve more academic success in the comparative studies of the Paekjae language, the Shinla language, and other adjacent Altaic languages.

Korean linguistics or linguistics in Korea has the viviparous limitation that on the one hand, it was influxed from Europe and Japan and on the other hand, these days the American linguistics takes the initiative in Korea. That's why Korean linguistics cannot be free of the problems of 'dependence/independence', 'central/marginal', etc.It calls for two conditions to study the nature of Korean itself and to establish the independence of Korean linguistics in this situation. The first condition is that we should reveal some peculiarities of Korean in itself. The second condition is that we should reveal universals of Korean by comparing it objectively with other languages which are typologically and genealogically different. I think the first is important but the latter is more important.To meet the second condition, we analysed the expansion structure of NP in Korean and French, and suggested a new tree-diagram for describing equivalently the NP structure of the two languages. As for VP structure, we suggested some possibilities of comparing the final endings in Korean with personal pronouns in French, and of comparing the prefinal ending 'si' in Korean with the second plural pronoun 'vous', etc.As a result of the comparison of Korean and French, we came to conclusion that Korean is a inflectional agglutinative language while French is a agglutinative inflectional one. In other words, they are same in 'typus', are different in 'topos'. This may be a surprising/unexpected conclusion. But this, we think, can lead us to much closer approach to the nature of the two languages Korean and French.

This paper argues that Koguryo historically belonged to Korea based on the linguistic homogeneity among Koguryo, Sinra, and Paekche. The language of Koguryo shows the following four distinct properties from Chinese.First, Koguryo, Sinra, and Kara share a dual structure of national birth myths, and the directional vocabulary found in the countries also shows the evidence that the Korean people moved from North to South. Chinese, on the other hand, has no indication of these facts.Second, the place names in Koguryo shared the same properties with those of the countries in the Korean Peninsula at the same period, but were different from those of China. It is also noticeable that the national name of Korea, adopted from the national name of Koruryo, was announced to the world and that Korea has been acknowledged as our national name since then. The legitimate lineage of Koguryo > Parhay > Hu-Koguryo > Korea proves that Koguryo belonged to Korea historically.Third, the names of kings were very similar among the Three Kingdoms, but distinct from those of China. The names of kings were created on the basis of the sun as well as nature and human functions or activities like nuri (world), Piryu (originated from the name of a river), onjo (all over world), Chumong Hwar-bo (a person who is good at shooting), Paem-bo (a baby crawling like a snake), K?chir-bo, Isa-bo, etc. This is a common characteristic among the Three Kingdoms, but clearly different from China.Fourth, the governmental names were very similar among the Three Kingdoms, but distinct from Chinese ones.These linguistic properties shared among the Koguryo, Packche, and Sinra are never accidental, but provide reliable evidence that the countries were founded by the Korean people. Koguryo, therefore, belonged to Korea historically.

The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the characteristics of the Korean language used as a major communication means within the Korean community in Chenguoz District of Harbin, Heirungjiang Province, China, in terms of its phonology, morphology and syntax. The study focuses on how a variety of languages and dialects including Chinese, the Standard Chinese Korean adopted as a means of teaching in Korean schools, and Kyongsang Dialect of Korean have influenced the language of the community. It also deals as background information with the history of the community, the attitude of the community members toward Korean and Chinese, and their proficiencies of Korean and Chinese, to obtain the general picture of the bilingualism of this community.This specific region was studied since this region and most of the Korean communities in the Heirungjiang province were formed by descendents of the immigrants from the southern provinces of the Korean Peninsula, which allows the comparison between the language used today and the language their ancestors used before moving to this area. Due to the industrialization and innovation brought about by the opening of the Chinese society, the fast outward flow of youths to urban areas, and greater assimilation threats from the embedding Chinese culture, we are not too sure if the Korean language will continue to be used in the future. Given these circumstances, we consider this research most opportune in that it provides a look into the Korean community that developed its distinctive culture and language within an isolated cultural environment.

The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the characteristics of the Korean language used as a major communication means within the Korean community in Chenguoz District of Harbin, Heirungjiang Province, China, in terms of its phonology, morphology and syntax. The study focuses on how a variety of languages and dialects including Chinese, the Standard Chinese Korean adopted as a means of teaching in Korean schools, and Kyongsang Dialect of Korean have influenced the language of the community. It also deals as background information with the history of the community, the attitude of the community members toward Korean and Chinese, and their proficiencies of Korean and Chinese, to obtain the general picture of the bilingualism of this community.This specific region was studied since this region and most of the Korean communities in the Heirungjiang province were formed by descendents of the immigrants from the southern provinces of the Korean Peninsula, which allows the comparison between the language used today and the language their ancestors used before moving to this area. Due to the industrialization and innovation brought about by the opening of the Chinese society, the fast outward flow of youths to urban areas, and greater assimilation threats from the embedding Chinese culture, we are not too sure if the Korean language will continue to be used in the future. Given these circumstances, we consider this research most opportune in that it provides a look into the Korean community that developed its distinctive culture and language within an isolated cultural environment.

｢Xixiangji[West chamber]｣ is one of the most popular Chinese dramas which was first translated into Korean by Chung-hee Kim in 1811. ｢Dongsanggi[East chamber]｣is a Korean drama which was written in Chinese by Ok Lee in 1791. It adopted the form of Chinese traditional drama, ｢Xixiangji｣. I think theses are very interesting examples which show how we accepted Chinese dramas through translation or modification and created our own dramas in the past. I quoted their names in the title because it is thought that they can represent the direction of the stream of cultural exchange between two countries in the past. The direction has recently changed. Han stream[Korean cultural effect] has become very powerful in whole Asia in last 10 years. Cultural exchange between Korea and China has been very steady and popular over 2000 years before the 20th century. We used to have cultural identity by using Chinese character and accept many of the cultural aspects from China. Now, we are trying to reestablish the relationship which has been cut off for about 50 years. In this paper I tried to retrospect the results of cultural exchange in the past and argue about the problems we are now facing by examining interchange or acceptance of the Chinese drama including translations and theatrical performances. I also tried to suggest the diverse ways of mutual exchange to uplift the cultural level of two countries.

In this article the structure of modern Russian humor is analyzed on the basis of some theories: bi-sociation theory (Koestler 1964), semantic script theory of verbal humor, using the concept of semantic presupposition, pragmatic felicity condition (Searle 1969; Levinson 1983) and grammatical rules (Chomsky 1965). Up to now the listed former theories were not examined and less analyzed by the semantic structure in the study of the structure of Russian humor(Исаева 1969; Задорнов 1991; 1992). Kreps (1981), who analyzed the works of Zoschenko, presented 21 types of humor, using the term ‘humoreme’ (Крепс 1981, 36-37). These types are the list of the available means of humor that work not in the base of semantic criteria, but in the base of means of literary rhetoric. Kreps presented types of humor means, such as contradiction, antonymic substitution, macaronic speech and correlation of humoremes in the various types of humor. Apart from Kreps, Manakov (Манаков 1986, 61-79) also studied these problems. He also set the system of the basic types of humor. Manakov introduced the linguistic means of humor of some Russian writers: Gogol, Tchechov. The means that Manakov showed with detailed examples, are trope, epithet, comic comparison, comic metaphor, comic periphrasis, euphemism, pun, zeugma, comic toponym, comic onomatopoeia, mania of foreign vocabulary, folk etymology, dialect etc. But these studies don't explain why these means make the works humorous. An, B.P. tried to answer this question (안병팔 1997 a; b). An B.P. explains contexts of humor through the Release theory, the Superiority theory and the Incongruity theory. An, B.P. explained the process of deviation from the grammatical norms through morpho-syntactic and lexical means. But in these studies the humor was not analyzed by the semantic criteria. In order to linguistically evaluate various means of humor formation, it is necessary to elicit its deep structure, which makes it possible to research the formation and interpretation of humor. For this purpose this article, being based on the Incongruity theory, defined the structure of humor as negation of presupposition. Of course the former traditional studies also well shared the concept of ‘contradiction’ and ‘contrast’ of humor structure, but they didn't explain the structure by semantic differential features. This study, analyzing the works of Zadornov, M., tried to note that through the negation of semantic presupposition the structure of contradiction is formed with semantic differential features on the semantic, syntactic or lexical dimensions.

Considering Korean feminist theatre is not successful at all these days, it is needed to find the reasons of its crisis. As two Korean feminist theatre scholars argued, the crisis owed to the structural problem from the start. That is the Korean feminist theatre started and developed depending on the imported popular feminist plays without social and cultural self-consciousness. Once the imported feminist theatres were flourished, some theatre companies pursued the commercial success blurring the feminist issues. It was resulted into the intentional ignorance in and out of the theatre society. While, some feminist plays were too inclined to the agit-prop without artistic sophistication. This essay tries to examine how the feminist theatres have been developing and what kinds of feminist performances have been made until now. And it intends to emphasize that the play text should be based on the Korean women's past, present, and future reality. Besides, they have to delve into the problem by which the Korean women were trapped in historical, social, and cultural environment. To make the women's matter the social issue at present and for the future, the Korean feminist theatre should re-find its place as the socio-cultural forum. First, Korean theatre should cooperate with the other women's group crossing the different disciplines of the society, the culture, the politics etc. Secondly, we need to observe and watch where and how the distortion happens in women's matter, and react to correct it. Thirdly, we need to discover, to support, and to protect the women centered perspective of some playwrights as well as the performers. Co-writing or co-performing is also very positive to diversify the women's subjects. Lastly, to protect the feminist theatre against the consumerism, they need to have the financial support from the government or some civil society.

Elegie und Iambos gehören zu den ältesten Genre der griechischen Lyrik. Erst in diesen Gedichten aus dem 7. Jh. v. Chr. beginnt der Dichter als persönliches Subjekt seine eigenen Erfahrungen auszusprechen, während er im Epos objektiv und leidenschaftslos hinter seinem Stoff zurückblieb. So behauptet man, dass in den Gedichten der beiden Genre “das Erwachen der Persönlichkeit”(B. Snell) erfolge. Doch dieser persönliche Charakter der frühgriechischen Dichtung darf nicht im Sinne der Subjektivität verstanden werden, wie man sie in der modernen Lyrik findet. Dem subjektiven Gefühl, das in den uns tradierten Fragmenten aus der frühgriechischen Dichtung zum Ausdruck kommt, kann man nämlich ein gemeinsames Pathos ablesen, das die Elegiker und Iambographen in der Zeit des politischen Umwandels angesichts der conditio humana empfunden hatten, das Pathos nämlich, das sich wohl unter dem Begriff amechaniē am besten zusammenfassen lässt. In solchen Grenzsituationen, wie Krieg, Unglück, Altern, sprechen sich die Dichter völlig hilflos aus und beklagen sich über die menschliche Unwissenheit über das erhängte Schicksal. Bezeichnend für ihre Begegnung mit der Hilflosigkeit des menschlichen Daseins ist jedoch der Realitätssinn, den sie aus ihren Erfahrungen der conditio humana bzw. amechaniē gewonnen haben: Sie wollen sich weder durch einen heroischen Gedanken über den Nachruhm noch durch einen religiösen Glauben an das Jenseits täuschen lassen. Sie wollen vielmehr hic et nunc einen Weg finden, sich mit der amechaniē abzufinden. Und dabei werden zwei verschiedene Lebenswege eingeschlagen, der Weg des erotischen Hedonismus (Mimnermos und Semonides) und der des “sardonischen" Realismus (Archilochos). Damit weisen uns die frühgriechische Lyrik auf zwei typische Lebensrichtungen hin, die sich später in der griechischen Ethik einbürgern sollen.