Earticle

본 연구는 자유 작문(free-writing)이 사고와 언어가 복합적으로 교차하는 역동적 내용 생성 기제임에 주목하여, 중학생 학습자의 자유 작문 산물 선택 양상을 중심으로 그쓰기 교육적 의의를 탐색하였다. 쓰기 과정에서 ‘중단이나 수정 없이’ 이루어지는 자유작문은 생성의 극대화를 표방하며 필자 고유의 목소리를 글에 반영하는 방안이다. 이에 중학교 1학년 학습자 33명에게 자유 작문을 수행하게 한 후, 자신의 글을 완성하는데 꼭 필요한 표현을 선택하게 하여 초점화된 인터뷰를 진행하고, 그 선택 및 비선택 경향을 주제 분석의 방법론을 통해 분석하였다. 그 결과 총 10가지의 주제가 도출되었다. 선택 경향 주제로는 ‘내용 진행, 내용 전환, 내용 평가’와 함께 날것의 목소리를 중시하는 ‘자기 표출’, 작성된 표현이 역으로 사고를 자극하는 언어의 사고화로서의 ‘표현 강조’가 확인되었다. 한편 비선택 경향 주제로는 ‘습관이나 실수, 즉각적인 현재 지각, 표현 수정’ 등과 더불어 쓰기의 인지적 부담을 덜어내고 정서를 환기하는 ‘필자 자기 조절’ 과 ‘일상 기록’이 특징적으로 나타났다. 이로부터 자유 작문이 학습자의 아이디어 산출을 극대화하는 동시에 메타인지적 조절 기제로 작동함을 확인하였으며, 현실의 ‘나’와독자를 고려하는 ‘구성된 필자’ 간의 간극을 조정하여 필자 고유의 목소리를 정립하도록 돕는 비계 설정 등 쓰기 교육의 구체적 시사점을 제언하였다.

This study explores free-writing's cognitive and affective mechanisms in idea-generation by analyzing 33 middle school students’ text selection patterns. Thematic analysis and focused interviews revealed ten themes. Five selection patterns demonstrated how writing dialectically shapes cognition, highlighting students’ drive to position their authentic “inner voice.” Conversely, five non-selection patterns revealed free-writing’s function in cognitive offloading and affective regulation. Based on these findings, this study proposes pedagogical scaffolding to bridge the raw “self” and the constructed “writer,” repositioning free-writing as an active metacognitive tool.

본 연구는 자유 작문(free-writing)이 사고와 언어가 복합적으로 교차하는 역동적 내용 생성 기제임에 주목하여, 중학생 학습자의 자유 작문 산물 선택 양상을 중심으로 그쓰기 교육적 의의를 탐색하였다. 쓰기 과정에서 ‘중단이나 수정 없이’ 이루어지는 자유작문은 생성의 극대화를 표방하며 필자 고유의 목소리를 글에 반영하는 방안이다. 이에 중학교 1학년 학습자 33명에게 자유 작문을 수행하게 한 후, 자신의 글을 완성하는데 꼭 필요한 표현을 선택하게 하여 초점화된 인터뷰를 진행하고, 그 선택 및 비선택 경향을 주제 분석의 방법론을 통해 분석하였다. 그 결과 총 10가지의 주제가 도출되었다. 선택 경향 주제로는 ‘내용 진행, 내용 전환, 내용 평가’와 함께 날것의 목소리를 중시하는 ‘자기 표출’, 작성된 표현이 역으로 사고를 자극하는 언어의 사고화로서의 ‘표현 강조’가 확인되었다. 한편 비선택 경향 주제로는 ‘습관이나 실수, 즉각적인 현재 지각, 표현 수정’ 등과 더불어 쓰기의 인지적 부담을 덜어내고 정서를 환기하는 ‘필자 자기 조절’ 과 ‘일상 기록’이 특징적으로 나타났다. 이로부터 자유 작문이 학습자의 아이디어 산출을 극대화하는 동시에 메타인지적 조절 기제로 작동함을 확인하였으며, 현실의 ‘나’와독자를 고려하는 ‘구성된 필자’ 간의 간극을 조정하여 필자 고유의 목소리를 정립하도록 돕는 비계 설정 등 쓰기 교육의 구체적 시사점을 제언하였다.

This study explores free-writing's cognitive and affective mechanisms in idea-generation by analyzing 33 middle school students’ text selection patterns. Thematic analysis and focused interviews revealed ten themes. Five selection patterns demonstrated how writing dialectically shapes cognition, highlighting students’ drive to position their authentic “inner voice.” Conversely, five non-selection patterns revealed free-writing’s function in cognitive offloading and affective regulation. Based on these findings, this study proposes pedagogical scaffolding to bridge the raw “self” and the constructed “writer,” repositioning free-writing as an active metacognitive tool.

이 연구는 데이터 과학을 기반으로 한국어 쓰기 학습자의 AI 활용 태도 를 분석하는 방향을 제시하는 것이 목적이다. 특히 한국어 학습자의 쓰 기 과정별 AI 활용 태도를 측정할 수 있는 척도 문항 개발에 집중하고자 한다. 이를 위해 먼저 기존 한국어 쓰기 교육에서 AI 관련 논의 경향을 점 검하였다. AI 활용과 인식으로 대별되는 한국어 쓰기 교육의 논의 경향 에서, 학습자의 태도에 대한 체계적 논의가 부족함을 확인하였다. 다음 으로 다음 데이터 과학을 기반으로 한 AI 활용 태도의 분석 방법을 살펴 보았다. 데이터 과학 관련 분야에서 논의되어 온 태도의 인지, 정의, 행동 요소를 확인하였다. 이를 바탕으로 한국어 쓰기 과정별 AI 활용 태도 척 도를 개발하였다. 구체적으로 계획하기, 생성하기, 조직하기, 표현하기, 고쳐쓰기의 쓰기 단계별로 각각 인지, 정의, 행동 요소에 따른 AI 활용 태 도의 척도 문항을 제안하였다.

This study explored a way for analyzing Korean writing learners’ attitudes toward AI use based on data science. It focused on developing scale items to measure Korean learners' attitudes toward AI use at each stage of the writing process. This study first examined trends in existing discussions on AI in Korean writing education. It identified a lack of systematic research on learners’ attitudes within the prevailing discourse, which is broadly divided into the perception and use of AI. Subsequently, the study reviewed analytical methods to determine attitudes toward AI based on data science, confirming cognitive, affective, and behavioral components as key elements of attitude. Accordingly, this study developed an attitude scale for each stage of the Korean-writing process, specifically proposing scale items reflecting cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements across the stages of planning, generating, organizing, expressing, and revising.

학습자의 개인차를 고려하는 작문 지도 필요성이 점점 더 강조되는 가운데, 인공지 능 도입으로 구현 기술이 급속히 발전하는 데 비해 교육 현장에서 학습자의 개인차를 무엇으로, 어떻게 반영할 것인지에 대한 이론적·실증적 연구 토대는 매우 부족하다. 또 한 작문 분야의 유형화 연구들은 일정한 패턴을 찾아내어 학습자의 개인차를 고려할 수 있다는 점에서 맞춤형 작문 지도의 실천 기반이 될 수 있으나, 실질적인 실천 방안을 도출하기 위해서는 기존의 파편화된 유형화 결과들을 집대성한 종합 유형을 이끌어낼 필요가 있다. 이에, 이 연구는 체계적 문헌 고찰의 방법론을 도입하여 5개의 국내외 데 이터베이스를 검색하고 포함 및 배제 기준, 비뚤림 위험성 평가 등을 실시하여 최종 10 편의 유형화 연구를 선정하였다. 선정된 연구물들을 주제 분석의 방법론을 통해 귀납 적으로 분석한 결과, 본문 시작 방식, 회귀적 성격, 전사 방식, 국면별 빈도 차이의 네 기준을 중심으로, 각각 계획형과 수정형, 선조형과 회귀형, 쾌속형과 주저형, 집중형과 분산형의 대립적 유형들이 도출되었다. 이 연구는 유형화 연구 결과의 종합 정리에 그 치지 않고, 추가적인 선행연구 검토를 통해 각 유형별 작문 지도를 위한 이론적 근거까 지 이끌어냈다는 점에서 더욱 의의를 찾을 수 있다.

While profiling studies of writing can provide a foundation for learner-centered education by identifying certain patterns that consider individual differences, there remains a need to synthesize fragmented findings into a comprehensive profiling result to derive practical instructional strategies. Thus, this study adopts a systematic review methodology, searching five international and domestic databases, and conducting inclusion and exclusion criteria assessments and risk of bias evaluations, ultimately selecting 10 profiling studies. By applying thematic analysis to the selected 10 studies, this research inductively identified four criteria: initiation, recursion, transcription, and dispersion. The study then identifies contrasting types according to each criteria: planners vs. revisers (initiation), forward vs. backward writers (recursion), rapid vs. hesitant writers (transcription), and concentrated vs. dispersed writers (dispersion). The significance of this research lies in not only synthesizing the results of profiling studies but also providing a theoretical foundation for writing instruction tailored to each type based on additional literature reviews.

학습자의 개인차를 고려하는 작문 지도 필요성이 점점 더 강조되는 가운데, 인공지 능 도입으로 구현 기술이 급속히 발전하는 데 비해 교육 현장에서 학습자의 개인차를 무엇으로, 어떻게 반영할 것인지에 대한 이론적·실증적 연구 토대는 매우 부족하다. 또 한 작문 분야의 유형화 연구들은 일정한 패턴을 찾아내어 학습자의 개인차를 고려할 수 있다는 점에서 맞춤형 작문 지도의 실천 기반이 될 수 있으나, 실질적인 실천 방안을 도출하기 위해서는 기존의 파편화된 유형화 결과들을 집대성한 종합 유형을 이끌어낼 필요가 있다. 이에, 이 연구는 체계적 문헌 고찰의 방법론을 도입하여 5개의 국내외 데 이터베이스를 검색하고 포함 및 배제 기준, 비뚤림 위험성 평가 등을 실시하여 최종 10 편의 유형화 연구를 선정하였다. 선정된 연구물들을 주제 분석의 방법론을 통해 귀납 적으로 분석한 결과, 본문 시작 방식, 회귀적 성격, 전사 방식, 국면별 빈도 차이의 네 기준을 중심으로, 각각 계획형과 수정형, 선조형과 회귀형, 쾌속형과 주저형, 집중형과 분산형의 대립적 유형들이 도출되었다. 이 연구는 유형화 연구 결과의 종합 정리에 그 치지 않고, 추가적인 선행연구 검토를 통해 각 유형별 작문 지도를 위한 이론적 근거까 지 이끌어냈다는 점에서 더욱 의의를 찾을 수 있다.

While profiling studies of writing can provide a foundation for learner-centered education by identifying certain patterns that consider individual differences, there remains a need to synthesize fragmented findings into a comprehensive profiling result to derive practical instructional strategies. Thus, this study adopts a systematic review methodology, searching five international and domestic databases, and conducting inclusion and exclusion criteria assessments and risk of bias evaluations, ultimately selecting 10 profiling studies. By applying thematic analysis to the selected 10 studies, this research inductively identified four criteria: initiation, recursion, transcription, and dispersion. The study then identifies contrasting types according to each criteria: planners vs. revisers (initiation), forward vs. backward writers (recursion), rapid vs. hesitant writers (transcription), and concentrated vs. dispersed writers (dispersion). The significance of this research lies in not only synthesizing the results of profiling studies but also providing a theoretical foundation for writing instruction tailored to each type based on additional literature reviews.

Eliot, in his lecture on “From Poe to Valéry” in 1948, speculates on Poe, Baudelaire, Mallarmé, and Valéry. Of them, Eliot pays special attention to Poe and his writings. He points to Poe’s inaccurate and careless choice of words. Eliot compares Poe’s writing with Tennyson’s: Tennyson’s use of words is accurate while Poe’s is not. As to a long poem, Eliot claims that Poe is incapable of writing long poems, as we see all his poems have a single mood. But there is one thing both agree to: 1) A writer must be faithful to his work, and the words he uses in his work should be the very words he would use in real life; 2) a writer’s personality and his work do not have any connection at all.

This study aimed to explore how Korean EFL university writers facilitated cognitive writing strategies (CWS) and metacognitive writing strategies (MWS) to improve writing performance in a mobile-based writing setting. Along with Kakao-Talk-based composition activities, 43 Korean undergraduates regularly participated in process-oriented writing. This study analyzed the relationship between CWS and MWS and categorized learners’ writing texts from a psychometric perspective. The results revealed that the more the participants were aware of CWS and MWS, the better language proficiency they could acquire. In particular, MWS (r = .786) affected students’ post-test scores more positively than CWS (r = .526). Next, the EFL learners took advantage of the reciprocal effect of elements in the writing strategies. Among the elements, the cognitive comprehending process (CWS-CP) and the memory-retrieval process (CWS-MRP) in CWS showed the strongest interactivity with the metacognitive monitoring (MWS-M) and evaluating writing product (MWS-EP) in MWS. The knowledge shared with peers through short sentence formulation in a virtual space could help the participants to clarify and elaborate their thoughts in the extended writing. While connecting their experience with acquired knowledge, novice writers could increase their self-confidence in writing. In conclusion, the mobile-based process writing model can contribute to activating Korean EFL novice writers’ self-directed writing strategies.

Explicit Observation of EFL Writing Process Youngju Choi (Chosun University) It has been discussed that process writing approach is more effective than product approach in teaching L1 and L2 writings. Discussion on writing processes in an L1 setting and an ESL setting dates back to late 1970s and early 1980s, respectively. However, it is not easy to find out researches on writing process in an EFL setting. To fill the gap, this paper examines what are the writing processes of EFL students in Korean classroom setting. Korean EFL students uses the product model instead of the process model for their composition. They think writing process should be linear rather than being recursive and hierarchical. Only after finishing the first draft, they try to revise it, mainly focusing on spelling and grammatical errors. Students do not seem to spend enough time in a prewriting stage. No subjects report that they discuss on their topics with others before they start to write. Based on the observation, it also discusses the pedagogical implication of the findings. Teachers need to intervene all the writing stages to help students discover meanings they want to create. Students' awareness of their writing processes is also an important part for better writing. Thus, teacher has to help them to understand what skilled writers do while composing.

This paper reports how a teacher educator attempts to effect change in the practice of serving teachers through modelling process writing with a real class of ESL children aged at about ten. The process of teaching was observed by two in-service teachers. Three research questions were put forward: first, whether the teacher educator’s espoused theory will be modified by the theory in action gained through practice; second, the impact of modelling on the observer teachers and whether their theory in action will be modified by the modelling. Third, what impact does process writing have on the learning of the students? To answer these questions, the teacher educator employed qualitative research tools. It is found that the educator’s espoused theory on process writing is enhanced by the practice in a real class. The modelling process increases the observers’ motivation to try out the new practice through the successful demonstration of strategies in the same classroom context, which has eased the teacher’s concerns over student responses and constraints of classroom resources. Young learners have learnt metacognitive skills through process writing but they also exhibit some misunderstandings in the approach in their initial experience with this process.

The Computerized Enhanced ESL Placement Test (CEEPT) at a public university in the US reflects a new academic writing assessment as test-takers are given sufficient time to plan, produce, and revise a short, academic essay. This study examines the authenticity of the CEEPT, will illuminate the potential of the computerized process-oriented writing assessment. The authenticity was examined based on both logical and empirical analyses. A close examination of a checklist with test and Target Language Use (TLU) tasks reveals relatively good correspondence between the characteristics of CEEPT tasks and of TLU tasks, which indicates high authenticity of the CEEPT. Test takers’ responses to the open- and closed-items on the CEEPT survey also show positive evidence in support of the authenticity of the CEEPT. Students perceived a close match between the academic tasks and the CEEPT tasks, and this high authenticity contributed to eliciting their true writing abilities. The CEEPT as one possible model for process-oriented writing assessment can provide alternatives to timed-single draft essay tests. The findings in this study can advance our understanding of writing assessments and may be applicable to the Korean context.

This study inquires into the effectiveness of proactive approach to grammaring through explicit grammar instruction in developing linguistic accuracy of Korean EFL college students’ written products. Forty-eight students from two intact sections of mandatory English composition course participated in the experiment for 10 weeks. The control group was taught with traditional process writing methods, whereas a modified version of process writing pedagogy supplemented with two types of grammar instruction―15-minute in-class grammar lessons and individualized online grammar practice―were applied to the experimental group. Linguistic accuracy of the pre- and post-treatment essays was measured by obligatory occasion analysis in the use of subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement, the articles in front of count nouns, the present perfect tense, and passive construction. The statistical analyses show that the experimental group outperformed the control group in three of five grammatical categories. Variations in linguistic accuracy development over a 10-week period support earlier second language acquisition discoveries that some grammatical categories are more resistant to instructional treatment than others and that linguistic characteristic of the structures interact with individual learner’s cognitive maturity

The rapid integration of generative artificial intelligence into educational contexts has prompted increasing interest in its potential role in second language writing instruction. This study explores English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university learners’ perceptions of ChatGPT-based self-feedback in comparison with conventional offline teacher feedback, with particular attention to differences across learner proficiency levels. The participants consisted of first-year university students enrolled in an academic writing course, who were divided into a lower-proficiency group (n = 137) and an intermediate-proficiency group (n = 50). Employing a mixed-methods research design, the study examined learners’ overall perceptions of feedback, their preferences for feedback sources, and their prompt patterns of interaction with ChatGPT within a process-oriented writing framework. Quantitative survey data were complemented by qualitative analyses of learners’ written responses and the prompts they used when engaging with ChatGPT for self-feedback during multiple stages of writing revision. The results revealed that learners in both proficiency groups demonstrated generally positive attitudes toward both ChatGPT-based self-feedback and teacher-provided feedback. Across proficiency levels, the immediacy, accessibility, and convenience of ChatGPT were consistently identified as its most salient advantages, enabling learners to revise their writing efficiently and maintain sustained engagement throughout the writing process. However, notable proficiency-related differences emerged in feedback preferences. Intermediate-level learners exhibited a stronger preference for teacher feedback, emphasizing the value of instructors’ professional expertise, interpretive guidance, and discourse-level comments that extended beyond surface-level language issues. In contrast, lower-level learners expressed a preference for a combined feedback approach that integrated ChatGPT-based self-feedback with traditional teacher feedback. This preference reflects their need for complementary support, in which immediate AI-generated assistance helps address linguistic difficulties while teacher feedback provides authoritative validation and direction. Further analysis of ChatGPT interaction prompts indicated that learners primarily utilized the tool for local-level linguistic support, including grammar correction, vocabulary choice, and sentence-level refinement, rather than for higher-order writing concerns such as organization, argument development, or rhetorical effectiveness. Importantly, the findings also suggest that the pedagogical effectiveness of AI-based feedback is closely associated with learners’ metacognitive awareness and their ability to design effective prompts. Learners who demonstrated greater awareness of their writing needs and more strategic prompt use appeared to benefit more substantially from ChatGPT-based feedback. These results highlight the potential of AI-assisted feedback as a supplementary tool in EFL writing instruction, while underscoring the continued importance of teacher feedback and the need for explicit guidance in developing learners’ prompt-design and self-regulation skills.

Knowledge about academic writing is important to be promoted among the community in Institutes of Teacher Education Malaysia (ITEMs) as the teacher trainees will need to teach these academic writing skills to their students in the future. Additionally, the amalgamation of digital technologies and instructional practice is known to be able to ignite the change in the teacher trainees’ learning of academic writing. As such, this study was conducted by adopting a single group quasi-experimental research design to investigate the effects of digital writing software as a tool for process approach to writing on teacher trainees’ academic writing performance. The study was done on 10 teacher trainees at one ITEM using pre- and post-tests, observation, and reflective journal. Findings indicate that the use of digital writing software as a tool for process approach to writing does improve the teacher trainees’ academic writing performance. The eclectic approach proposes an effective way of enhancing the writing process and increasing the teacher trainees’ motivation to write digital conceptual papers. The use of digital writing software as a tool for process approach to writing can be carried out over an extended duration to develop better comprehension and practice of academic writing.

This study aims at investigating Korean university students’ product and process of writing in English to see the impact of L2 writing proficiency and reader awareness, using a software program for recording keyboard activity and compose-aloud protocols with retrospective interviews. It analyzes compose-aloud protocols of eight students of two different levels of English writing ability (LP and HP) for two tasks (one with specific information on the target reader and the other without it), which were combined with the data recorded by the computer program Inputlog. The results of the study illustrate the effects of L2 writing proficiency on the written product and writing process on-line of Korean students. Both groups spent most of their time writing, but the HP group did more editing. The LP students verbalized more often for language form searching. The study also reveals some impact of reader awareness, which was more observable in the HP group. The HP students were aware of the reader role in English writing; thus, they used audience-related strategies regardless of the tasks. But its frequency increased in the task where the target reader was given, while no clear impact of reader awareness was noted in the overall quality of both groups’ writing.

This study examined how the university students in an English composition class utilized process-oriented writing to develop their writing skills and scaffold their learning through the process. It also studied the students' reflections on the class, as well as demonstrated educational implications from the study. The methodology the current study used was qualitative research. To answer the established research questions the author conducted surveys, collected writing samples, and observed students' learning behaviors. Through the data collection and analysis, themes (findings) emerged, including prewriting, writing, and post writing activities, and the results from the process-focused writing. The findings present that the students experienced emotional scaffolding in writing by shifting from their fear and anxiety to confidence and interest. The study also showed the importance of the teachers' roles and pedagogical decisions in writing instruction. The instructional decisions they made was strongly connected with the students' perceptions, emotions, and learning.

This article aims to investigate the effects of the types of teacher feedback and students’ perceptions when responding to them. Particularly, this study was attempted to explore how two different levels of six student-writers—an elementary and a low-intermediate level—respond to teacher comments in order to improve their drafts in a process-oriented approach. Data was collected through the 18 students’ drafts—a first draft and two revisions, individual interviews, and open-ended questionnaires. The teacher feedback was categorized and its paired students’ revisions were rated. The results show that all students, irrespective of proficiency levels, perceived that positive feedback plays a distinct and essential role that aids students’ motivation and willingness to accept criticism in teacher feedback and to continue working with it, although they noted they were also aware of the usefulness of negative feedback. Interestingly, the elementary level students were able to respond to feedback similar to that of their more proficient counterparts in their second revisions after gaining experience with feedback from the first round of teacher feedback. The data also demonstrated that most students placed more importance on receiving content-based rather than error-based feedback in order to develop their drafts in spite of their linguistic limitations. This study has significant implications for a writing classroom and teacher feedback practices.

This paper aims to investigate the effectiveness of the process-genre approach on EFL learners’ writing improvement. A total of 48 Chinese college freshmen students participated in this study, and they were divided into high-level (n=20) and low-level (n=28) groups. All the participants were instructed by the same teacher in the College English class for 14 weeks, during which they were taught how to compose in three writing genres: narration, exposition, and argumentation. After comparing the writing scores of pre- and post-tests from both groups, it can be concluded that the processgenre approach is helpful in enhancing the EFL learners’ writing competence because both groups of students had significantly improved their writing abilities. Besides, both group learners attained a salient achievement in expository writing after they were trained by the process-genre approach. Compared with the high-level learners, the low-level learners made larger progress in all three writing genres. It indicates that enough teaching time and teacher’s scaffolding systems are crucial for the learners’ writing development.