Earticle

본 논문은 『清華簡·伍』 ｢命訓｣편을 전래본 『逸周書』 ｢命訓｣과 문헌학, 언어 문자중심의 관점에서 비교하고, 문장의 원형을 구현하며, 이 과정에서 출토본의 사료적 가치를 밝히는 것을 목적으로 한다. 본 연구에서 출토본과 전래본의 판본간 비교는 다음의 세 가지를 중점으로 진행한다. 첫 번째, 두 판본의 보완성과 개별성을 모두 긍정하는 시각에서 분석한다. 두 번째, 전래본과 출토본에서 각각 드러나는 문장의 차이점과 공통점을 정리, 분석한다. 마지막으로 문헌 내부에서 나타나는 언어문자의 제반 풀이를 고찰해야 할 것이다. 이 같은 주해를 진행한 후 중요한 문자와 구문분석을 시도한다. 이를 통해 본 문장의 중요한 언어적 배경을 도출할 수 있을 것이다. 이어 해결이 어려운 문제 등 문제제기를 통해 향후 연구의 진행방향을 모색한다.

In this paper, aim to compare the “Cheonghwa Wu” and the “Mingxun” to find out the prototype of “Yizhoushu”. Also show the importance of “chutuwenxian”. In this study, the comparison between the excavated and the edited versions focuses on the following three points. First, I analyze the complementarity and individuality of the two editions. Second, I analyze the differences and commonalities of sentences revealed in the original and the excavated texts. Finally, I will gather up all the explanations of the Chinese characters appearing in the texts. After all research, I try to translate some important characters and parse. and I expect to find a linguistic feature of the texts.

본고는 강빈옥사에 대한 역사 기록을 중심으로 사건 서사의 형성 과정을 살펴보고 조건의 변화에 따른 재해석의 양상을 드러내고자 한다. 강빈옥사에 대한 당대 기록인 실록에는 사건에 대한 절대 권력의 설명과 그 설명을 수용하길 저항하는 여론이 함께 서술되었다. 인조는 강빈의 존재가 왕권에 위협이 된다고 판단하고 후환을 제거하기 위해 그 주변인들까지 처벌하였으며 처벌을 정당화하기 위해 그의 인성과 행실의 흠결을 찾았다. 강빈의 부도덕성이 강조될수록 강빈과 그 주변인들에 대한 처벌은 탄탄한 명분을 확보하게 된다. 그러나 궐에서 일어난 사건이라는 특수성 때문에 옥사에 대한 정보가 투명하게 제공되지 않고 사건의 처리가 권력의 의도에 따라 일방적으로 진행되자, 당시 신하들과 여론은 옥사의 결과에 승복하지 않았다. 강빈이 조귀인의 간계로 억울하게 누명을 쓴 것이라 여겼는데, 이는 무리한 옥사의 책임을 인조에게 전적으로 돌리기보다 평소 품성이 간악하다는 평판이 자자했던 조귀인에게 묻고 있는 것이다. 조귀인을 원흉으로 설정하는 논리는 절대 권력을 정조준하여 권위를 훼손하는 위험 부담을 우회하는 전략이 될 수 있었다. 사건 이후 숙종 집권 초기에 이르기까지 강빈이 역모를 꾀한 가해자라는 권력의 입장과 강빈이 억울하게 누명을 쓴 피해자라는 여론의 동향이 공존했으나, 숙종 후반기에 이르러 정치적 필요에 의해 강빈옥사는 조귀인에 의해 조작된 일로 규정되고 강빈이 신원되면서 의혹과 소문이 사실로 인정받았다. 숙종에 의한 강빈의 신원은 강빈옥사에 대한 최종적 해석이 될 수는 없었다. 100년이 지난 뒤에 편찬된 󰡔연려실기술󰡕에서는 급박한 정치적 득실과 필요에서 벗어나 소현세자와 강빈에 대한 동정적 시선과 음모론을 보다 냉정하게 바라보았다. 강빈옥사와 관련된 사실 위주의 기록들을 선택적으로 배치하여 사건을 보여주는 방식을 취함으로써, 현실 권력을 수긍하고 감정적인 해석에 거리를 두며 사건에 대한 상반된 해석의 가능성을 열어두었다. 인조와 효종, 현종에 의해 패륜적 악녀로 이미지화되었던 강빈은 오늘날 여성사적 입장에서 여성 리더의 모델로 소환되고 있다. 특정한 역사적 사건은 그 자체의 실체적 진실보다 그 사건을 해석하는 필요에 따라 다르게 조망되고 구성되며 의미화된다. 이처럼 강빈옥사에 대한 기록들은 권력의 의지와 저항, 은폐와 의심, 정치적 현장과 시간적 거리 등이 어떻게 사건의 다른 맥락을 드러내고 재현하는지 보여준다. 역사적 사실이 시선의 경쟁 속에 놓여있음을 확인할 수 있다.

The purpose of this study is to examine the formation process of the case narrative, focusing on the historical record of the major criminal case of Lady Kang, and to reveal the aspects of reinterpretation according to changes in conditions. In King Injo Annals, a contemporary record of the major criminal case of Lady Kang, a royal explanation of the case and public opinion against it were also described. King Injo judged Lady Kang as a threat to maintaining a stable royal power, punished not only her but also her surroundings in order to get rid of the remorse, and to justify the punishment, the flaws in her character and conduct were revealed. As Lady Kang's immorality is emphasized, punishment for Lady Kang and her surroundings becomes a must. However, when information on the major criminal case was not provided transparently and the case was handled unilaterally by the powers, public opinion at the time did not accept the results of the investigation. Rather, the responsibility for pushing the major criminal case forcibly was attributed to the concubine Cho, who had a reputation for his wicked character. The strategy was to bypass the risk of undermining the king's authority by setting the concubine Cho as the primary enemy. In the major criminal case of Lady Kang, the power-supplied explanation that Lady Kang was the perpetrator who tried to poison the king co-existed with public opinion that she was a victim who was unjustly accused. However, in the second half of King Sukjong, according to political needs, this case was defined as a manipulation by Cho. In this way, suspicion and rumors gained the status of fact. However, this was not the final interpretation of the major criminal case of Lady Kang. In Yeonlyeosilgisul, the case was described more calmly, free from political gains and losses and necessities. Taking the “show” method, it affirms the real power, distances itself from emotional interpretation, and opens the possibility of conflicting interpretations of events. Lady Kang is being summoned today as a model for a female leader. A specific historical event is meant differently according to the needs of the position interpreting the event. As such, the records of the major criminal case of Lady Kang show how the power's will and resistance, concealment and doubt, and the political scene and the temporal distance can reveal and reproduce different contexts of the case. It can be seen that historical facts lie in the competition of eyes.

인도에서는 건축물에 대한 장엄이 여러 부분에서 행해졌고 불교에 수용되면서 불탑과 불전 및 사찰의 다른 건축물에까지 확대되고 있다. 불전의 장엄에서도 세존께서 교화하시던 빠른 시기에 이미 성립되고 있고 율장에서는 다양한 불교미술의 장엄을 사용한 내용이 언급되고 있다. 이러한 장엄들은 세존께서 교화하시던 때부터 불전이 신행의 중심을 이루고 있으나, 의례는 대부분이 불탑을 중심으로 이루어졌다. 한국에서는 불전이 창건되면서 여러 장엄이 발전되고 있고 건축양식과 불교회화를 중심으로 전개되었다. 그렇지만 현존하는 사찰은 대체적으로 임진왜란 이후에 건축되었으므로 이전 시대의 장엄에 나타났던 특징을 많이 확인할 수는 없다. 주불전의 본래 목적은 예경의 의례를 통한 수행과 기복의 의미가 내포되어 있었으나 조선후기에 이르면 포교와 교육공간을 총괄하는 기능을 갖추게 되었고 제한된 공간에 여러 교학의 상징성을 추가하게 된다. 이러한 역할과 기능에서 건축적 장엄과 불화의 장엄이 조합되어 세존의 가르침을 손쉽고 빠르게 전달할 수 있는 교육과 포교의 체계를 갖추었으며 주불전은 조화와 통합이 유기적으로 체계화된 상징성으로 귀결되어 불보살의 세계를 표현하는 역할로 발전되고 있다. 따라서 조선후기 주불전의 장엄은 시대의 생태를 쫓아서 본래의 목적인 의례에서 더 나아가서 포교 및 교육공간을 총괄하는 역할로 발전되면서 미학적인 감각을 통합시켰고, 그 당시에 발달하였던 교학을 바탕으로 경전을 재해석하여 불보살의 세계인 정토를 현재의 이곳에 구현하고자 노력하였으며, 현실에서 불보살들의 정토를 상징하는 장엄을 완성하고 있었다.

In India, decorations for architecture have been routinely done and expanded to Buddhist pagodas and other structures of the Buddha's central hall and temples. The decoration of the Buddha's central hall has already been established at the earliest times of Buddhism, and the use of various Buddhist art decorations is said in the Qing dynasty. These ornaments are the center of faith and practice of Buddha 's hall from the time of Buddhism, and consciousness is mostly centered on the sutpa. In Korea, as the space of Buddha was created, various decorations were developed, and it was developed around architecture style and Buddhist painting. However, since the existing temples were built after the Japanese invasion in general, it is impossible to confirm many characteristics of the decoration of the previous period. The main purpose of the main Buddha's central hall was to carry out the ceremonial ceremony and the meaning of the patriarchy. However, in the late Joseon period, it had the function of supervising the mission and education space and added the symbolism of the plural teaching to the limited space. In these roles and functions, the combination of architectural decoration and Buddhist decoration combines to form a system of education and proscription that can easily and quickly deliver the teachings of the Buddha. The spaces of the main Buddhas result in symbolism that harmonization and integration are organically organized, And to express the world of Buddha and Bodhisattva. Therefore, the decorations of the main Buddhist place in the late Joseon dynasty pursued the ecology of the times and developed into a role to take charge of the missionary education and the space for the mission and to integrate the aesthetic senses. Based on the texts developed at that time, Interpreted and tried to realize the world of Buddhahood in the present place, and in reality embodies the decoration symbolizing the pure land of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

This paper presents Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) as a tool to support the study of paintings and authentication. Manufacturing techniques of the artist are reviewed through the comparison between liberal perspectives and digital imaging techniques. In this study, RTI was applied to focus on the detailed textural information of eight paintings by Korean artist Lee Ji-ho. The RTI result visualizes shallow reliefs of brush strokes and different mediums on the surface technically enhanced through imaging filters, and these morphological textures on the surface act as a key factor in understanding the characteristics of the artist. The surface morphology and art criticism work as qualitative indicators to analyze the change of artistic techniques through time, and the usage of different mediums. The results of this study confirm that the RTI technique can be used as an analysis device in the study of paintings.

The purpose of this paper is to review the practice of relay interpretation in Korea. Longed reviled as a mode of interpretation that must be avoided at all costs, we are finding that due to financial constraints as well as linguistic limitations, organizers have no choice but to find recourse in relay interpretation. In Asia, and more specifically in Korea, it is not unusual to have to do relay interpretation from time to time. In order to gauge the prevalence and usage of relay interpretation, a questionnaire was distributed to conference interpreters based in Korea. The questionnaire was a brief 10-question survey to understand the extent of the use of relay interpretation as well as to understand how interpreters themselves perceive it. The results could be used to inform students, before they become professionals, about the "perils" of interpretation as well as what they should look out for when they are presented with a relay situation or might have to work as pivot in an interpretation team.

With the increase of human exchanges and globalization an irreversible phenomena, Korea finds itself welcoming an increasing number of foreign visitors. From visitors who come for a short while to either attend conferences or simply tour the country or those who stay longer seeking employment, the purposes of the visits vary greatly. At the same time, today, non-Koreans can be the instigators of a lawsuit or be asked to be a witness in court. The number of cases involving court interpretation, consequently, has nearly doubled from 124 cases in 1998 to 232 in 1999. The languages being used in the courts have also become more varied. English, Chinese and Japanese as well as Arabic, Hindi, Urdu, Vietnamese and other exotic languages have been required. Some of the current problems include the lack of qualified interpreters; unrealistic interpretation fees and difficulties in securing qualified interpreters; lack of relevant knowledge and training as assistants of the court. There is an obvious need for improvement. Such deficits could result in international human rights lawsuits as well as negatively affecting the confidence in the Korean court system. Even if it is just to fulfill our obligations to international law, Korea needs to improve its court interpretation system to match international standards.

The purpose of this paper is to review the pedagogy of interpretation and translation. With the proliferation of schools of interpretation and translation, both at the undergraduate and graduate levels, it is important to have an understanding of the process involved in teaching consecutive and simultaneous interpretation as well as translation. Students must first be given a theoretical framework to base their studies on before they begin the practical aspects so that they can be armed with the tools needed to engage in their profession. Based on this sound foundation as well as linguistic fluency, students can begin to learn the basics of interpretation and translation, while curriculum planners need to keep the theoretical framework and process in mind when devising curricula. This paper will begin with a short overview of theory and its place in the discipline, followed by a step-by-step introduction of the pedagogy of consecutive and simultaneous interpretation as well as translation. The process espoused in this paper is based on the E.S.I.T. method or th orie du sens which has been widely accepted around the world as well as the author's personal experience in teaching interpretation and translation from Korean into English for over thirteen years.

The interference between closely placed co-coverage satellites was analyzed. In general, a satellite network may use different orthogonal polarizations and frequencies to increase the throughput of a satellite. However, when orthogonal linear polarization (horizontal polarization and vertical polarization) or orthogonal circular polarization (left-handed circular polarization and right-handed circular polarization) is used, the signal from one polarization sense to another may be coupled, resulting in cross-polarization interference. This signal-coupling arises due to the finite value of the cross-polarization discrimination of the earth station. In this study, field equations were used to analyze the interference between adjacent satellites using co-frequency. The level of interference was compared to that when two adjacent satellites used the same polarization. The simulation results show that the interference mainly depends on the off-axis co-polar pattern and the cross-polar pattern of the earth station antenna.

Urban regeneration, which implies a certain type of change from what has previously existed, requires fundamental understandings of previous problematic ways of thinking for a meaningful change, as well as a new philosophy that is thought to support that change. This means a change in philosophy is needed to discuss 'newness' in urban regeneration. From this perspective, this paper explores the philosophies which shaped traditional cities as well as a philosophy that may be able to suggest changes to contemporary cities. This paper further proposes contextual novelty as necessary to pursue. This contextual novelty does not deny modern cities' problems but embraces them and carries them into contemporary cities. Arguing for qualitative novelty, this paper argues that contextualism, which explores the complex relationships of direct and indirect contributors of a given event, can help us to understand contemporary cities' heterogenic characteristics. In this context, this paper discusses the concept of novelty in contemporary discourse of urban regeneration by using the philosophy of contextualism. Finally a recent example of urban regeneration in the city of Gwangju, South Korea is interpreted using the concept of contextual novelty.

Two varying opinions have emerged with regards to Zhu Xi’s lixue (禮學, study of rites). One of these argues that unlike Confucius’ lixue, Zhu Xi’s overemphasis on the formal features of li (禮, rites) caused the latter to become rigid and heteronymous. Moreover, Zhu Xi’s lixue eventually became the theoretical basis for the stagnation of Chosŏn society. Meanwhile, the other stance maintains that regardless of its standing as the main cause of rigid formality, the Zhu zi jia li (朱子家禮, Zhu Zi’s Family Rituals) constitutes an integral part of Korean traditions that must be preserved and passed on to future generations. For instance, the latter stance points to the fact that the guanli (冠禮, capping ceremony) and jili (笄禮, hair-pinning ceremony) prevalent amongst the sadaebu (士大夫, literati) class during the Chosŏn era, continues to be recreated in the present era. This study strives to reconsider Zhu Xi’s lixue from the standpoint of its formal nature. This undertaking can be construed as a reflection of the fact that the above-mentioned contrary evaluations of Zhu Xi’s lixue have failed to carry out sufficient theoretical examinations of the formal aspect of this study of rites. The importance of such an exercise lies in the fact that if the formal characteristics contained in Zhu Xi’s lixue are found to have constituted nothing more than an implement through which to suppress humans, then attempts to bring about the inheritance of this lixue in the modern era would effectively become futile. With this in mind, this study focuses on the formal characteristics of Zhu Xi’s lixue in order to analyze the implications of the formalism contained therein. Moreover, an attempt is also made to prove that Zhu Xi’s lixue was based on a compromise between ancient rites (古禮, guli) and current fashions (時俗, shisu), that is, the harmonization of tradition and modernity. Furthermore, the author also strives to shed light on the logic upon which Zhu Xi based his attempt to reach a compromise between ancient rites and current fashions. Ultimately, this study reaches the conclusion that the methodology employed by Zhu Xi to incorporate ancient rites can serve as a model when it comes to the incorporation of traditional rites in the contemporary era. This study as such attempts to identify the significance of the formalistic characteristics of Zhu Xi’s lixue, and to search for a modern methodology through which Zhu Xi’s lixue can be used to incorporate traditional rites.

This paper aimed to explain the characteristics of North Korean English textbooks included in the textbook corpus analysis. The analysis mainly focused on the North Korean educational periodicals; 23 volumes of "Teachers' Propaganda Notebook" and 54 volumes of "People's Education". The analytic approach was 1) digitize all the English education-related articles included in the analytic materials, 2) use Nvivo 13 to categorize English education articles and their thematic propagation, and 3) relate the thematic categories to the North Korean leaders' statements. The findings were: Articles touch upon English education for the advancement of science and technology, the improvement of students' English skills, the enhancement of revolutionary ideology, and the improvement of English teachers' teaching and learning methods. These categories were derived from North Korean leaders' statements on occasions of field inspections, dialogues with newspapers, and conferences.

Purpose: This study develops a checklist with guidelines for the methods and important factors to consider in research using structural equation modeling (SEM). Method: The paper discusses the factors to consider in the process across the three stages of 1) model setting, 2) model evaluation and modification, and 3) interpretation and reporting of SEM-based studies. Results: The authors present a checklist for researchers during the stages of model setting, model evaluation and modification, result analysis, and reporting, along with examples of figures and tables with explanations. Conclusion: A checklist will help to improve the reporting quality of SEM-based studies.

목적: 본 연구는 감각통합 평가 도구인 Sensory Profile 2 (SP-2)의 해석 복잡성, 주관성, 시각화 한계를 개선하기 위해 인공지능(artificial intelligence) 기반 챗봇(ChatBot) 시스템인 Sensory Profile 2 Summary and Interpretation (SPSI)를 개발하고 그 활용 가능성을 탐색하였다. 방법: SP-2의 평가 항목과 점수 산출 방식을 기반으로 자동화된 ChatBot 인터페이스를 구현하였으며, 자연어 기반의 문답 시스템을 통해 사용자가 직관적으로 평가에 참여할 수 있도록 설계하였다. ChatBot은 자동 점수 산출, quadrant grid/score별 해석, 중재 전략 제시, 시각적 요약 등의 기능을 포함하고 있으며, OpenAPI 연동을 통해 다양한 출력 형태를 지원한다. 결과: SPSI는 평가자의 주관 개입을 최소화하면서도 일관된 해석과 전략 제시가 가능하며, 시각화 자료(파이차트, 행동 예시 등)를 통해 보호자 및 비전공자에게도 직관적인 결과 전달이 가능하였다. 특히 설문 입력에서 결과 도출까지의 전 과정을 자동화함으로써 평가 소요 시간과 해석 부담을 줄이는 데 기여할 수 있다. 결론: SPSI는 작업치료 분야에서 기존 감각통합 평가 도구의 한계를 보완할 수 있는 사용자 중심의 디지털 평가 도구로서의 가능성을 보여주었다. 향후에는 임상적 유용성을 확보하기 위해 신뢰도 검증, 설명 가능한 인공지능(explainable artificial intelligence) 도입, 보안 체계 강화 등의 보완이 필요하다.

Objective: This study aimed to develop an AI-based chatbot system, the Sensory Profile 2 Summary and Interpretation (SPSI), to improve the interpretability, objectivity, and visualization of the Sensory Profile 2 (SP-2), a widely used sensory integration assessment tool in occupational therapy. Methods: The structure and scoring rules of the SP-2 were embedded into a chatbot framework using a GPT-based language model. The system provides automated scoring, quadrant-based interpretation, personalized strategy suggestions, and visual summaries (e.g., pie charts and keyword-based graphs) through natural language interaction. OpenAPI integration enabled seamless data input and output across platforms. Results: The SPSI reduced evaluation time and interpretation burden by automating the scoring and reporting processes. It improved assessment clarity and accessibility for nonspecialist users, including caregivers, by delivering results in intuitive visual and textual formats. The chatbot consistently provided standardized interpretations based on SP-2 guidelines, minimizing evaluator bias and enhancing result communication. Conclusion: The SPSI chatbot system demonstrates the potential of AI-driven tools to facilitate user-centered, efficient, and comprehensible sensory assessments. Future work should include clinical validation, incorporation of explainable AI for decision transparency, and implementation of robust data protection measures for practical deployment.

The curriculum and instruction of graduate schools of interpretation and translation are to a great extent similar. The curriculum consists of courses allowing students to practice the skills of interpretation and translation while the instruction involves their actual practice. The purpose of this article is to see whether models of teaching pertaining to educational theories can be applied to the teaching of interpretation. Though most of the models introduced by Joyce & Weil are basically aimed at K-12 students, some of them can be adjusted to the instruction of interpretation in order to accommodate the different learning styles of students. A brief look at the Tyler Rationale as it applies to curricula for interpretation schools will set the groundwork for the objective of such schools, followed by various educational models. The teaching models chosen for this paper are advance organizers, memorization, non- directive teaching, role-playing, simulations, followed by an overview of learning styles and multiple intelligence.

This study intends to help editors and publishers understand what to be aware of when signing a publishing contract in Korea. The legal interpretation of publishing rights may vary depending on the type of contract. It is vital for publishers to understand the different characteristics of each type of contract: author-publisher agreements, establishment of publishing rights, transfer of the author’s economic rights, and lump-sum agreements. Lump-sum agreements are a unique practice common in Korea, in which intellectual copyright is transferred upon a one-time lump-sum payment. Decisions regarding the infringement of publication rights in a given case will be rendered in accordance with the specific aspects of the relevant type of publication rights, and the work in question must be reviewed to determine whether it shows substantial similarity or sameness in order to prepare for any potential issues. Meanwhile, in Korea, electronic publishing requires an additional agreement separate from the printing publication agreement, but regulations regarding electronic publishing shall be confirmed through international agreements after considering the specific statutes and practices of publication in each country, as legal statutes and their interpretation may vary widely. Editors and publishers of academic papers and books must be aware of the various types of publishing contracts in practice.

This paper responds to the question: ‘Is true interpretation/translation between/among human languages possible?’ While one may instinctively believe that one language can effectively be accurately transferred into another, this paper provides academic theories and data that support this belief. To that end, the writer examines various theories regarding the origin of human languages, its physical properties, and aspects that render true interpretation/translation of one human language into another human language not only possible, but necessary. Modern human languages are diverse with widely varying linguistic and cultural differences. However, it is argued that those differences are superficial, given the greater similarities that underlie all human languages. Moreover, given the productive property of human language systems, the superficial differences can easily be overcome. As a result, academic evidence, reinforced by realistic experiences, serves to demythologize the art and science of human language interpretation/ translation.

Interpreting live TV coverage of a major event such as the war on Iraq during the first part of 2003 was a major challenge for broadcast interpreters. To get the real time information accurately and quickly to the Japanese audience watching Japanese TV, the interpreters were required to interpret news that was broadcast by foreign TV for foreign viewers. In the caseof the war on Iraq, English-Japanese interpreters were mobilized in great numbers to promptly convey real-time information originally broadcast by foreign media for foreign viewers as part of the news broadcast by Japanese TV stations for the Japanese audience. Promptness and accuracy of information were the most important points called for by the viewers. But in the case of live TV coverage of the war to be interpreted into Japanese, the interpreters are caught in the middle of how to interpret the foreign news geared towards foreign audiences in the most intelligible manner to the Japanese audience. There are issues of terminology specific to war that interpreters need to know, plus differences in the reporting viewpoints by various original TV stations that interpreters need to be aware of in order to choose the most pertinent words for interpretation. This article will look into how the actual interpretation process was conducted in the interpretation of live TV coverage of the war in Iraq for Japanese TV, and it makes concluding remarks and suggestions as to what would be the best way to proceed in the case of such a major event to be interpreted live on TV.

This paper emphasizes the importance of basing teaching for future interpreters on findings that have been made on interpretation; techniques in accurate listening, effective note taking, etc. In the context of the “Theory of Sense”, this paper elaborates on the training of basic techniques such as accurate listening, effective note taking in consecutive interpreting, correct use of cognitive complements, clear expression of ideas, transcoding where applicable. The paper further explores strategies for training more progressed trainees; dealing with narrative, argumentive, descriptive and rhetorical speeches; interpreting into a B language and retour interpretation; and training in simultaneous interpreting. This paper particularly stresses that the interpreter’s understanding of a speaker’s intended meaning forms the core of all interpreting activities.