Earticle

The purpose of the current study was to examine the effect structure difficulty may have on the type of knowledge representation L2 learners draw on in different measures of linguistic knowledge. To this aim, word monitoring task (WMT), elicited imitation task (EI), timed grammaticality judgment test (TGJT), untimed grammaticality judgment test (UGJT), and metalinguistic knowledge test (MKT), each consisting of an equal number of easy and difficult structures, were employed. The results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated that the easy items of GJTs, irrespective of time condition, tap into the construct of automatized knowledge and the difficult ones of EI, TGJT, UGJT, and MKT into explicit knowledge. Additionally, in all the tests the participants’ performance on the easy items significantly differed from that on the difficult ones. Therefore, it can be concluded that structure difficulty is a contributing factor in discriminating different knowledge types and has a pivotal role in learners’ use of linguistic knowledge.

There has been ongoing controversy over the importance of explicit knowledge in SLA. Regarding the controversy over the role of explicit knowledge, three major issues need to be addressed: the nature of learners’ explicit knowledge, the relationship between learners’ explicit and implicit knowledge, and the interface of explicit and implicit knowledge. The present study is motivated by the third issue of possible interfaces between explicit and implicit knowledge. For the purpose of the present study, the study first discusses theoretical issues regarding the interface debate and then seeks to find the answer for the debate of interface or non-interface by investigating empirical evidence. Although no studies were intended to address interfacing, the present study identifies and examines those studies which have the potential to address this issue. The investigation of this study suggests that studies reviewed did not show any impact for explicit knowledge through explicit instruction on free production tasks (especially oral) suggesting a non-interface between explicit and implicit knowledge

This paper investigates on how children's implicit knowledge of their mother tongue helps their language development from 12 to 48 months. For the literature review, this paper discusses kernel theoretical aspects of language development regarding three themes: 1) the relationships between implicit knowledge and language acquisition, 2) the role of self-correction for language development, and 3) the significance of the error analysis of children's utterances. To discuss these themes by analyzing empirical data, the author observed and collected data for a couple of twins' verbal utterances. The targets of analysis are their utterance errors and the courses of self -correction in three prominent grammatical aspects－i.e., negation ‘an,’ subject particle ‘i/ga,’ and deixis ‘this, that, it’－which frequently appear and are crucial grammatical morphemes in child language. Based on the discussion, this paper emphasizes that children employ and test various hypotheses on the rules of their mother tongue as the part of their implicit knowledge, and they finally gain grammatical knowledge from ‘unseen’ efforts of self-correction

The study addresses the issue of language instruction and aims to examine the facilitative effects of different types of instruction, i.e., implicit and explicit, on the acquisition of English present perfect tenses. The 83 university students who participated in the study were assigned to three groups: 28 students in the implicit group, 29 in the explicit group, and 26 in the control group. The two experimental groups received grammar instruction with different conditions: the implicit group was provided with input enhancement, clarification requests and recasts, and the explicit group received language instruction with metalinguistic explanation feedback while completing rule-search tasks. The results indicated that the explicit group outperformed the implicit group in both awareness and production post-tests. Based on the results, insight into form-related pedagogical implications is provided along with the limitations of the study.

This study investigated the effects of two types of corrective feedback (CF), recasts and metalinguistic feedback (implicit vs. explicit CF), on the development of implicit and explicit knowledge of English articles. It also examined the relationship between learners’ language aptitude, in particular language analytic ability, and their knowledge development through different types of CF. Six intact intermediate communication English classes (a total of 104 students and two English-speaking teachers) at a university participated in the present study. In CF groups, learners received recasts or metalinguistic feedback (MF) to the errors of the English articles during communicative activities, while no CF was given to the control group. The study employed a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest design, and four different tests were used to measure learner implicit and explicit knowledge. The study found both recasts and MF effective in the development of implicit knowledge and selective effects of recasts on the improvement of explicit knowledge. This suggests that both implicit and explicit CF bring about the development of implicit and explicit knowledge. In addition, language analytic ability was found to be closely related to learners’ gains through both CF and development of explicit and implicit knowledge of English articles.

성별 범주는 사람의 이해를 위해서 사용되는 사회 지식이다. 선행 연구에서 성별 범주인 남녀 범주가 균형적이고 대칭적으로 구성되기보다는 참가자 성에 따라 비대칭적으로 표상되었다는 보고가 있었다(이재호와 방희정, 2003). 이 연구는 선행 연구의 실험 조건과 실험 과제를 변화시켜 참가자 성에 따른 성별 범주의 비대칭적 표상을 관찰하고자 하였다. 실험 1은 선행 연구의 성별 범주의 전형성 변인을 적용하고 긴 SOA(stimulus onset asynchrony, 650ms) 조건에서 명명과제를 적용하였다. 그 결과, 성별 범주의 여성성 효과와 속성 전형성과 성별 범주간의 상호작용 효과가 관찰되었다. 실험 2에서는 점화조건은 선호도에 따라 긍정과 부정 단어를 조작하였고, 목표 단어는 전형성에 따라 전형과 비전형 단어를 조작하였다. 즉 정서적 평가 속성의 점화효과를 관찰하고자 하였다. 점화와 목표 단어의 시간간격은 SOA 150ms이었으며 어휘판단과제를 실시하였다. 그 결과, 성별 범주와 참가자 성의 복잡한 상호작용 효과가 관찰되었다. 여성 범주에서는, 여자는 긍정이 부정보다 점화효과가 크게 관찰되었지만 남자는 그 차이가 없었다. 여자는 전형이 비전형보다 점화효과가 크게 관찰되었지만 남자는 역방향이었다. 남성 범주에서는, 여자는 부정이 긍정보다 점화효과가 크게 관찰되었지만 남자는 그 차이가 없었다. 남녀 모두 비전형이 전형에 비해서 점화효과가 적었다. 남녀 모두 여성성 효과가 관찰되었고, 여자는 일치성 효과가 적용되지만 남자는 그렇지 않았다. 암묵 수준에서 성별 지식이 참가자 성에 따라 비대칭적으로 표상됨을 다시 확인하였다.

Two experiments were conducted to explore the implicit representation of gender knowledge using primed naming task and lexical decision task for prime-target pairs. In Experiment 1, Participants were presented gender's attributes as primes at SOA 650ms and were asked to pronounce person's name which were differed in typicality of gender's attributes. The results showed that female gender effects, typicality effects, and interactions were found. In Experiment 2, Participants were presented gender's attributes as primes at SOA 150ms and were asked to decision to gender attributes which were differed in preference and typicality of gender's attributes. The results showed that positive preference effect was observed in female attribute only, but reversed typicality effects were found in male attribute. These results were discussed from a point of view of graded representation of gender categories and asymmetrical processing to priming conditions.

본 연구는 우리가 흔히 ‘재미있다'라고 말하는 긍정적인 정서 상태에 대한 아동의 암묵적 지식을 탐색한 후, 재미와 플로우의 관계를 알아보기 위한 연구이다. 아동의 재미에 관한 암묵적 지식을 연구하기 위하여 초등학생들에게 ‘재미’를 생각할 때 떠오르는 말들을 적도록 한 후 내용분석을 통해서 재미와 관련된 예비문항을 설정하고 이를 정교화 하여 25문항을 완성하였다. 이 설문지를 아동이 가장 재미없어하는 공부와 재미있어하는 컴퓨터게임 두 상황에 맞추어 응답하도록 하였다. 공부할 때의 재미에 관한 탐색적 요인 분석 결과 ‘기분좋음’, ‘편안함’, ‘만족함’의 3요인 모델이 설정되었고, 이 3요인 모델이 컴퓨터게임 재미에도 적용되는지를 알기위하여 확인적 요인분석을 실시한 결과 컴퓨터게임의 재미도 위의 3요인 모델이 적합한 것으로 나타났다. 재미와 플로우의 관계를 분석하기 위해서 먼저 평균비교를 한 결과 컴퓨터게임이 공부보다 더 재미있으나, 플로우는 오히려 공부할 때가 컴퓨터게임을 할 때보다 더 높은 것으로 나왔다. 전체적으로 플로우는 재미와 유의미한 상관을 보였고, 세부 분석결과 공부할 때나 컴퓨터게임을 할 때나 재미의 ‘기분좋음’요인이 플로우와 가장 높은 관련이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구의 결과가 창의적 과업수행이나 학습능력향상, 삶의 질과 관련된 연구에 제공하는 함의와 장래 연구 과제를 논의하였다.

This study was conducted to explore the relationship between interest and flow in children. Before the analysis of the relationship, content analysis of implicit knowledge of interest based on the survey of elementary school students was conducted. Based on the content analysis interest questionnaire was made. An exploratory factor analysis showed 3 factors in academic settings：feeling good, comfort, and satisfaction. The 3 factor model was further analyzed to confirm the validity in game settings. Before analysing the relationship between Interest and Flow, the data were analyzed with paired samples t-test, which showed that students were more interested in computer related games than study while they experienced more flow in studying than doing computer games. Correlation between flow and interest was significant. The detailed analysis reveals that the ‘feeling good' factor was more related with flow in both academic and game settings than 'comfort' and 'satisfaction' factors.

최근에 실용지능(practical intelligence)과 묵시지(tacit knowledge)를 둘러싼 논쟁이 뜨거웠다. 인지심리학자인 Sternberg와 동료들이 80년대초부터 전통적 지능에 대한 대안으로서 개척해온 실용지능과, 그것의 핵심적 부분이라고 주장되는 묵시지에 대해서 일부 산업심리학자들은 신랄한 비평을 제기하였다. 즉 실용지능은 묵시지의 조금 넓은 개념에 불과하고, 묵시지는 산업심리학에서 이미 연구되고 있는 직무지식과 다를 바 없으므로 Sternberg등의 기여는 없다는 것이다. 물론 여기에 대한 이견도 있다. 산업심리학자인 Landy는 오히려 Sternberg의 연구를 높이 평가하면서 산업장면에 도입되어야 할 개념이라고 주장하였다. 저자는 실용지능과 묵시지라는 두 개념간 관계를 분명히 하는 틀을 설정하기 위해 암묵적 학습의 개념을 매개변수로 도입하고자 한다. 즉 실용지능을 능력의 일종으로 보고 이 능력이 암묵적 학습활동을 촉진하고 그 결과로 묵시지가 도출된다면 두 개념간 중복이냐, 혼동이냐 하는 논쟁도 사라지게 된다.

Recently there has been a hot dispute around practical intelligence(PI) and tacit knowledge(TK). Sternberg and his colleagues. cognitive psychologists. have proposed PI as the alternative of traditional intelligence and TK as the major component of PI from the beginning of 1980's. Some industrial/organizational psychologists presented a harsh critique against PI and TK. They argue that PI is a broad conceptualization of TK and TK is a kind of knowledge which has been well studied in I/O area. On the other hand Frank Landy argues for Sternberg and insist that Sternberg's ideas should be imported to I/O area. The author tries to establish a certain consistency between PI and TK by introducing implicit learning as an intervening variable. That is, PI facilitates implicit cognitive functioning such as implicit learning and TK is ascertained as a result.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of collocation- based English vocabulary instruction on learners’ receptive and productive collocation knowledge acquisition and their attitudes toward collocation- based learning. Thirty 3rd year middle school students participated in the study. They were divided into two groups: the explicit group received direct instruction on target collocations, while the implicit group learned the target collocations indirectly by doing activities such as guessing meaning in context. Data sources consisted of pre- and post- test of collocation knowledge, survey, and in-depth interviews. The results of the study revealed that there was a significant improvement in collocation knowledge in both explicit and implicit collocation-based vocabulary instruction. The improvement of receptive collocation knowledge was especially more noticeable than that of productive collocation knowledge. Another major finding was that explicit instruction was more effective than implicit teaching in productive collocation knowledge acquisition, while there was little significant difference in receptive collocation knowledge acquisition between the groups. Additionally, the learners’ perception on collocation-based instruction was generally positive, and they were relatively well aware of the necessity of collocation learning.

본 연구는 수업에 관련된 요소들에 대한 교사들의 인식을 조사하였다. 수업관련요인에 대한 교사들의 암묵지를 탐색하기 위해 예비조사에서 교사들로 하여금 수업과 관련한 제반사건, 행동 등을 보고하게 하였다. 수집된 800여개 항목을 전문가 검토를 거쳐 284개의 문항으로 정리한 후, 이를 토대로 수업에 대한 의견조사지를 구성하여 전국의 각급학교 교사들을 대상으로 조사를 실시하였다. 조사된 항목들의 중요도에 바탕을 두고 암묵지의 추출에 적용되는 요인분석을 실시하였다. 그 결과 수업에 영향을 주는 요소에 대한 암묵적 범주요인으로 이상적 수업, 수업방법, 수업과정, 교과내용, 지원체제, 평가·통제 등의 요인이 추출되었다. 아울러 이러한 요인을 기초로 수업에 대한 암묵지의 패턴이 다른 교사집단유형을 추출하기 위해 군집분석을 적용하여 교사주도, 체제중시, 중립, 양가가치, 방법중시, 수업본질로 명명될 수 있는 6개의 이질적인 유형을 발견하였다. 추출된 집단유형의 배경요인별 분포양상을 비교하였으며 교사의 수업동기진단에의 적용을 포함한 연구결과의 활용방안을 제시하였다.

In this study, I tried to find out factors which construct teacher's value structure which affect classroom instruction. The value structure assumed to be formed by the combination of various elements relating to classroom teaching. Survey questions were initially developed based on a preliminary study examining the views of Korean teachers on instructional planning, implementation practices, and assessment in terms of the difficulties encountered in classroom and the factors that facilitated and hindered their instructional decision-making. A final version of the questionnaire was administered to a national sample of 680 Korean elementary, middle, and high school teachers. Exploratory Factor analyses revealed the 6 factors such as ‘ideal instruction,’ ‘teaching methods,’ ‘teaching process,’ ‘subject contents,’ ‘support system,’ ‘evaluation and control,’ On the base of the findings from factor analysis, we tried to classify teachers. Cluster analysis revealed the 6 groups such as 'teacher leadership,' 'dependance on external system,' 'neutrality,' 'duplicity,' 'concern for methodology,' 'essential teaching.' The findings of this study have some implications for making educational decisions on how to plan and implement effective professional development leading to instructional reform and for diagnosing teacher's instructional motivation in a relatively short time.

이 연구는 청소년기 고교생의 성과 결혼에 관련된 발달과업에 대한 성인들의 암묵적 지식의 내용과 구조를 파악함으로써 청소년에게 작용하는 사회적 압력으로서의 발달과업의 특성을 이해하고 청소년의 발달지도에 대한 지침을 마련하고자 하였다. 발달과업에 대한 자유응답형 조사결과를 바탕으로 전문가협의를 거쳐 총 59개의 항목을 선정하였으며 이를 5점척도형식으로 중요도를 조사하여 요인분석을 한 결과 3개의 주요요인과 각각 3개의 하위요인이 추출되었으며 각 요인에 포함된 항목을 기준으로 요인의 특성을 분석한 결과 구분 준거로 능력, 기술, 수행이라는 범주가 확인되었다. 하위요인에 포함된 항목을 추가로 분석한 결과 이러한 구조적 범주와 성욕, 이성교제, 결혼이라는 내용범주가 조합하여 요인구조를 나타내고 있음을 발견하였다. 청소년기의 성, 결혼의 발달과업은 개인적 차원에서 성욕의 만족, 대인관계적 차원에서 이성교제, 사회적 차원에서 결혼 준비라는 영역에 필요한 잠재적 재능과 구체적 기술과 실제 관련 행위의 실행을 포함하고 있다.

The purpose of this study was to explore the implicit knowledge on sexual and marital developmental tasks of high school students. The study consisted of two stages. At stage 1, developmental tasks were collected with free-response sheets from 43 teachers. The final lists from those responses were accomplished through the conference of professionals in human development and counselling. At stage 2, the importance of each task was surveyed in Likert's 5 points scale from 171 respondents. The relative importance of each task was established from the descriptive analysis, and 3 factors and 9 subfactors were found from the factor analysis. Sex eduction which was not mentioned independently in the previous studies on developmental tasks was the most important issue in this study. Factors were made up of the structural elements including ability, skill, and performance and the content elements including sexual needs, heterosexual relationships, and marriage. The implications of the factor structure were discussed as implicit knowledge.

The study investigates which grammar features need high priority of pedagogical intervention to develop implicit knowledge, unlike grammatical features in need of explanation of explicit rules. Two types of data were collected from 29 Korean college students: a sentence completion test in English and a meta-linguistic knowledge test (requiring students to both correct the underlined error and explain the grammatical rule) in Korean. Through statistical analyses, including a Wilcoxon signed rank test, this study finds significant differences in test achievements for tense, time prepositions (for and since), subjunctive moods, dative alternations, quantitative adjectives (many and much), gerunds, and third-person singular -s in the simple present tense. Based on results obtained, this study proposes which specific grammar features need intensive pedagogical intervention for production skills, including sentence writing and speaking. Several practical suggestions are provided for EFL instructors and researchers to make more effective use of speaking and writing activities as well as formative testing.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the effectiveness of the interaction between implicit knowledge and explicit knowledge by using the American romantic comedy film, Friends with Benefits (Gluck, 2011). Six English major college students participated in this study. Three implicit and explicit tests were administered to all the subjects, with each of three tests including two types of tests. First was a sudden test without previous announcement, and another one was administered after a previous announcement of the upcoming test. To understand the subjects’ different scores, an oral interview and comprehensive writing test were administered. The results varied. Subject A was a content-driven student who combined content (explicit knowledge) with the relevant language expressions (implicit knowledge). Subjects B and F were the same. However, they were not successful in combining content and language. It was assumed that they failed to deal well with the large quantity of language input and needed to reduce their workload. Subjects C, D, and E were all language driven. They were slightly confused about the content. Results show one caution is given to EFL English teachers using movies. Most students may prefer to learn language through movies, rather than talking about the content.

This study aims to investigate which method of instruction between Integrated Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) and Isolated FFI is more effective in developing explicit and implicit knowledge. In Integrated FFI, grammar instruction, such as brief explanations of language forms and error feedback, is provided while learners are engaged in tasks, whereas in Isolated FFI, grammar instruction is provided initially, before tasks are introduced. For the study, 45 first-grade middle school students were divided into two groups. One group received Integrated FFI while the other received Isolated FFI; both types of explicit form-focused instruction were embedded in communicative lessons. Pre- and post-treatment tests were administered to compare the effects of the different types of grammar instruction. The tests consisted of a written error correction test, an elicited imitation test, and a picture-cued oral test. The target grammatical structure was the passive voice. The results of the study show that there was no significant difference between Integrated FFI and Isolated FFI in students’ development of explicit or implicit knowledge, and that both manners of instruction can contribute to improvement on written error correction and elicited imitation tests.

This study explores how five Korean advanced L2 learners perceive their use of explicit and implicit knowledge. Using linguistic autobiographies and in-depth interviews, the participants’ perceptions of L2 linguistic knowledge was investigated. To analyze the degree of explicitness and implicitness, five elements―levels of awareness, learning strategies, speech monitoring, systematicity, and the influence of their L1―were considered. The findings indicate that participants tend to perceive L2 vocabulary and idioms as explicit knowledge, while their perception of grammatical knowledge considered either explicit or implicit. The results of the study suggest that the participants' L2 knowledge may either remains explicit or has the potential to convert to implicit, partially supporting the claims of the non-interface or the weak interface position.

This study extends previous factor-analytic research on measures of second language (L2)　implicit and explicit knowledge（Bowles, 2011; R. Ellis, 2005; Vafaee, Suzuki & Kachisnke, 2017) by validating the use of the word monitoring task (WMT), a psycholinguistic technique, as a measure of L2 implicit knowledge. Native speakers of English (n = 16) and Korean advanced learners of English (n = 50) took four tests: the WMT, the elicited imitation (EI) test, the untimed grammatical judgments test (UGJT), and the metalinguistic knowledge test (MKT). The WMT and the EI test were hypothesized as implicit knowledge measures, while ungrammatical items in the UGJT and the MKT were employed as hypothetical measures of explicit knowledge. The results indicated that the native speakers of English showed more grammatical sensitivity in the WMT than the Korean advanced learners of English. Among the Korean advanced learners, the experienced learners were sensitive to grammatical violations, whereas the less experienced learners were not. In a confirmatory factor analysis, the WMT and the EI loaded onto one factor, while the UGJT and the MKT loaded onto the other factor. These combined findings provide strong evidence confirming that the WMT is a valid measure of implicit knowledge.

This study investigates the effect of student-centered contextualized materials and explicit L2 instructions to develop implicit L2 knowledge. Forty-five Korean-speaking adult learners of English participated in the study and were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental groups, who received (1) explicit instruction plus incidental exposure of you-tube materials (EI) or (2) incidental you-tube exposure only (I), or one control group, who did not receive any explicit instruction or you-tube materials. Learning was assessed by a free oral narrative task(ONT) to measure for implicit knowledge. The analysis found that the EI group showed better performance on the ONT whereas no superior performance was found from the I group. However, the I group showed better performance than the control group. Therefore, these results suggest that the outcome of explicit instructions positively affect the development of implicit L2 knowledge, and only the incidental exposure did not offer a sufficient condition to develop implicit knowledge comparing the EI group.