Earticle

Recently, many computer-based programs for cognitive function training are being developed. However, they are not sufficient for voluntary training with interest and immersion since most of the programs developed so far have been developed for therapeutic purposes. In this paper, the contents were implemented by applying visual element based design which can provide interest and immersion for the elderly. It is important to note that this approach may be more effective in cognitive rehabilitation training. In the future study, it will be necessary to verify how much the visual design elements based on the elderly are effective for cognitive function rehabilitation.

본 연구의 목적은 음고(pitch)와 선율(melody)을 중심으로 한 음악활동이 단순언어장애아동의 작업기억과 언어능력에 미치는 영향을 살펴보는 것이다. 이를 위해 K시에 거주하는 단순언어장애를 가진 만 6세 아동 3명을 대상으로 30분씩 총 12회기 개별중재를 실시하였다. 작업기억은 비단어 따라말하기와 문장 폭 기억과제, 언어능력은 PRES 검사를 사전·사후로 실시하였다. 연구결과 첫째, 음고와 선율을 중심으로 한 음악활동은 단순언어장애아동의 작업기억을 측정하는 두 가지 과제에서 향상을 보였으며, 둘째, 단순언어장애아동의 수용언어와 표현언어 능력에서도 향상되는 결과를 나타냈다. 셋째, 본 활동은 회기가 진행될수록 음고에 대한 변별력과 기억할 수 있는 선율의 마디수 증가를 돕는 것으로 확인되었다. 이는 음고와 선율을 중심으로 한 음악활동이 단순언어장애아동의 작업기억을 활성화시키는 중재전략으로 사용될 수 있으며, 언어능력 향상에도 긍정적인 영향을 미칠 수 있음을 시사한다.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of pitch-melody music activities on the improvement of working memory and language competency of children with specific language impairment. The experiment was conducted, a total of 12 sessions each for 30 minutes with 3 six year-old children with specific language impairment living in K city. The pre-post tests were performed on the non-word speaking and sentence-width memory tasks for working memory, and the PRES test for language competency. First, pitch-melody musical activities showed the improvement in both tasks for working memory, and second, for language competency the improvement in the acceptance and expressive language of children with specific language impairment. Third, it was found that the remembering length of the melody and the discrimination power of the pitch increase as the session progressed. This suggests that pitch-melody musical activities can be employed as an intervention to activate the working memory and also to improve the language competency of children with specific language impairment.

Working memory is information temporarily held in the mind. It is used in the completion of mental tasks such as comprehending language, following instructions, and solving mathematical problems. Working memory also plays a very important role in simultaneous interpreting, which is a very complex task involving comprehending, translating and producing language at the same time. This paper attempts to find out factors interfering with working memory, causing the degradation of the efficiency and the quality of simultaneous interpreting, especially when the source language and the target language are very different in word order and syntactic structure. It also shows how to overcome the problems with working memory arising from differences in syntax and usage of the source and target languages. This paper shows, in terms of cognitive psychology, why word order restructuring, progressive sight translation, and deletion of redundant information are helpful in reducing time lag and removing factors troubling working memory.

Although working memory (WM) and language aptitude (LA) are essential cognitive skills for second language learning, their stability and sensitivity to experience remain debated. Language acquisition is considered a unique skill and a reliable indicator of learning success, with age and exposure influencing development. Cognitive models suggest that practice may continue to promote growth beyond early learning phases, but empirical data on whether these capacities, especially in listening, change with experience are limited. This study investigated the relationship between WM, LA, and Chinese listening competence in 306 learners aged 18–29 from 64 countries. Participants completed listening tests, aptitude tasks, and a Language History Questionnaire across 108 cross-sectional assessments and 15 longitudinal follow-ups spanning three months to two years. The longitudinal subset included 15 valid datasets from learners with HSK 3–5 proficiency (CEFR B1–B2), motivated by teaching, business, or joint ventures. Results show that longer learning duration and sustained use of Chinese significantly improved listening proficiency, particularly in socially immersive environments. In contrast, neither LA nor WM exhibited significant change over the study period, indicating substantial cognitive stability. Listening performance was primarily predicted by phonetic coding and executive WM, which accounted for a substantial portion of variance. Learners with higher levels of these abilities consistently achieved better outcomes. The findings address three theoretical questions. First, aptitude and proficiency are distinct constructs: aptitude reflects underlying learning capacity, whereas proficiency denotes achieved skill. Second, changes in proficiency do not necessarily entail changes in aptitude, as longitudinal analyses showed improvements in listening did not correspond with significant changes in auditory language aptitude (ALA). Third, quantitative variation in proficiency was not associated with detectable qualitative changes in aptitude within the follow-up period, underscoring the relative stability of phonological coding and executive WM. Several limitations should be noted. The longitudinal sample was small, with only two measurement points over three months, limiting power to detect subtle changes. Participant diversity and short tracking periods may have contributed to variability beyond experimental control. Future research should involve larger and more homogeneous samples, multiple measurement waves, and extended follow-up, potentially incorporating native and second language competence tests to examine mediating effects. Pedagogically, the findings indicate that instructors should consider learners’ linguistic backgrounds when designing listening instruction or aptitude-based interventions, as individual differences influence the effectiveness of auditory training. Overall, WM and LA shape early learning efficiency while maintaining long-term stability, highlighting their importance for predicting and enhancing listening outcomes in diverse second language learners.

[목적] 본 연구는 시각 단서 유형에 따른 활동관찰 훈련이 초보자의 시각 탐색과 작업기억 효율성에 미치는 영향을 분석하여 배드민턴 복식 전술 이해 향상 효과를 검증했다. [방법] 40명의 초보 남성 참가자를 네 집단(텍스트단서 활 동관찰, 그림단서 활동관찰, 활동관찰, 통제)으로 나누어 5일간 활동관찰 훈련을 실시했다. 훈련 전후, 작업기억의 정 확성과 속도를 측정하고 아이트래커를 이용해 시각적 탐색 변화를 분석했다. [결과] 단서가 제공된 모든 집단은 통제 집단에 비해 작업기억의 정확성과 속도에서 유의미한 향상을 보였다. 특히 텍스트단서 활동관찰 집단은 우리 팀과 상대 팀 영역에 대한 주시 빈도가 증가하고, 셔틀콕 주시 빈도는 감소하는 경향을 나타내 주의 및 인지 자원 배분이 더 효율적으로 이루어졌음을 보여주었다. [결론] 이러한 결과는 단기간의 활동관찰 훈련은 초보자의 인지적 수행능 력을 향상시키며, 인지적 부하 관점에서 학습에 필요한 본질적 의미를 명확히 전달하는 텍스트 단서가 가장 효과적 인 지각-인지 훈련 방법이 될 수 있음을 시사한다.

[Purpose] This study analyzed the effects of action observation training with different types of visual cues on beginners’visual search and working memory efficiency, verifying its effectiveness in improving tactical understanding in badminton doubles. [Method] Forty male novices were divided into four groups: text-cued, graphic-cued, non-cued action observation, and a control group. The training was conducted for five days, with 24 sessions per day. Working memory accuracy and speed, along with visual search patterns, were measured before and after. [Result] All cued experimental groups significantly improved working memory accuracy and speed compared to the control group. In particular, the text-cued action observation group increased fixation frequency on their own and the opponent’s team areas while reducing fixation on the shuttlecock. [Conclusion] These results suggest that even short-term action observation training can enhance the cognitive performance of beginners, and that text-based cues could be the most effective perceptual-cognitive training method for novices.

숫자외우기의 검사는 단기주의집중 능력을 측정하는 대표적인 검사로, 전통적인 채점 방법은 바로 따라 외우기(DF)와 거꾸로 따라외우기(DB)의 점수를 합산하여 단일하게 채점하는 것이다. 그러나 DF는 정보의 유지만을 요하는 단기기억을 측정하고 DB는 정보의 유지뿐만 아니라 조작을 요하는 작업기억(Working memory)을 측정한다는 점에서 DF와 DB의 개별적 채점 및 양자의 비교 필요성이 여러 연구자들에 의하여 제기되어 왔다. 한국에서는 김홍근(2003)이 K-WAIS에서 16세 이상의 성인을 대상으로 DF-DB의 규준연구를 제시된 바 있으나, 6-16세 까지의 아동청소년을 대상으로 하는 대표적인 지능검사 KEDI-WISC 및 K-WISC-III와 관련해서 DF와 DB의 차이(DF-DB)에 대한 규준연구는 아직 국내에서 이루어지지 않아 양자의 차이에 대한 객관적 평가가 어렵다. 본 연구의 목적은 K-WISC-Ⅲ검사에서 연령에 따른 DF와 DB의 수행정도와 DF와 DB의 차이(이하 DF-DB)에 관한 아동 규준을 제시하는 것이다. 이에 본 연구에서는 236명의 아동청소년의 K-WISC-Ⅲ 자료에 기초하여 DF-DB에 관한 한국아동청소년 규준을 제시하였다. 결과, 연령, 지능 수준이 DF와 DB의 각각의 수행에는 유의미한 영향을 미치지만, DF-DB에 미치는 효과를 검토한 결과 통계적으로 유의미하지 않았다. 따라서 DF-DB의 규준은 연령, 학력, 지능, 수준의 구분 없이 단일하게 작성하였으며, 규준의 형식은 DF의 자릿수에서 DB의 자릿수를 뺀 결과를 백분위 점수화한 형식을 취하였다. 규준을 검토해보면, DF-DB가 4이하이면 백분위 37.6%이상으로 ‘정상’ 수준이며, 5이면 백분위 12.2%로 ‘경계선' 수준이고, 6이상은 백분위 1.2%이하로 ‘비정상' 수준이다.

Digit Span test is the typical test which has the ability to measure short-term attention. The traditional method of scoring Digit Span Test is to sum the scores of digits forward(DF) and digits backward(DB). However, the DF requires short-term maintenance of information, whereas the DB requires short-term manipulation as well as short-term maintenance of information, so several researchers have proposed alternative suggestion of DF and DB's individual scoring . In Korea. Kim(2003) made K-WAIS's DF-DB norm, but no K-WISC-Ⅲ norm for the difference between DF and DB has been published yet. Thus, the aim of the present study was to provide a K-WISC-Ⅲ norm for the difference between DF and DB. A total of 236 Korea normal subjects were administered DF and DB. The effects of age, years of education, or FIQ on the differnce bettween DF and DB were minimal and statistically nonsignificant. Therefore, the DF-DB of the norms was create by single regardless age, education, intelligence. The unit of measurement for the norm was the number of digits forward minus the number of digits backward. The difference of 4 or smaller corresponded to 37.6%lie and may be classified as normal; the difference of 5 corresponded to 12.2%lie and may be classified as borderline and the difference of 6 or greater corresponded to 1.2%ile and may be classified as abnormal.

Previously, Shin and colleagues (2006) reported sequential deflections of encoding-related lateralization (ERL) waveforms in event-related potentials (ERPs). One of these deflections, observed at posterior electrode sites (P7/P8), started about 400 ms poststimulus, and was dependent on both memory set-size and the degree of matching between memory-sets and test probes. These suggest that there is a level at which relations among items and degree of memory access are important in visual working memory. Based on these findings the present study investigated representational quality and degree of memory access. It was hypothesized that representational quality could be lowered by competition between stimuli (local suppression), and that degree of memory access be lowered when probes only partially match memory-set stimuli (partial matching). The relative distance (close or far) and similarity (homogeneous or heterogeneous) between memory-set stimuli were varied. ERPs were recorded while participants made old or new responses to single probes preceded by memory-sets (of size 2 or 4). ERL results obtained from 33 participants showed (a) that large ERL effects were found at the P7/P8 sites with a latency of 400-700 ms from probe onset, similar to Shin et al. (2006); (b) that significant ERL activity was observed only for the homogeneous memory-sets presented far apart; and (c) that the heterogeneous memory-sets presented nearby showed significantly smaller ERL activity than set-size 2 memory-sets (representing no-suppression and complete matching). These results support a hybrid of the local suppression and partial matching hypotheses, suggesting that representational quality and degree of memory access can jointly influence visual working memory processing.

How does working memory (WM) load affect concurrent visual selection? A previous study has shown that high WM load increases functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals for task-irrelevant information, suggesting that visual selection is impaired with a WM load. In contrast, recent behavioral experiments demonstrated that visual selection can be enhanced if the type of WM load overlaps with distractor processing. Using fMRI, the current experiment extends the previous behavioral findings by demonstrating that loading WM with face images can reduce task-irrelevant face processing in the face-selective cortical region, the fusiform face are (FFA). In Experiment 1, while remembering a famous (low load) or novel (high load) face, participants performed a politician-athlete classification for names overlaid on distractor faces. In Experiment 2, participants remembered one novel face (low load) or three different novel faces (high load) for the WM task. In both experiments, high WM load enhanced target selection. The FFA responses were reduced to face distractors when WM was demanded. We further demonstrated that these results were not driven by load-dependent baseline shifts in the FFA activity in Experiment 3. In conjunction with previous studies, the current findings suggest that WM load can attenuate distractor interference and improve target selection when the contents of WM shares limited-capacity processing with distractors.

The conflict effect is typically smaller following incongruent than congruent trials, and this trial-by-trial modulation has been interpreted as evidence for increased top-down control for efficient selection of task-relevant information. An alternative explanation suggests that this modulation is due to bottom-up feature integration, the notion that stimulus and response features from one trial are automatically bound in an event file. Therefore, complete repetition or alternation of stimulus and response features across trials results in better performance than partial repetition of features, since the latter requires unbinding of the event file from the previous trial. In the present study, using the Simon task, we examined how working memory capacity (WMC) is related to the top-down and bottom-up components of the modulation of the conflict effect. We found that: 1) WMC was negatively correlated with the trial-by-trial Simon effect on partial repetition trials, the portion that reflects top-down control processing. 2) WMC was not associated with the Simon effect of complete repetitions and alternations, the portion that reflects bottom-up processing. 3) Medium and high WMC individuals may be using a different strategy than low WMC individuals. In combination, our findings lend insight into factors that may relate to the trial-by-trial modulation of the Simon effect. Implications for these findings are discussed.

Studies have shown that stimulus representations interact in visual working memory (VWM). Using Gestalt grouping cues, we investigated how VWM representations of individual stimuli interact in grouping contexts. Two closely located colored circles (proximity) were connected or separated by a line (connectedness). These pairs were shown in memory and test arrays. Participants performed color change detection tasks in which they were asked not only to detect changes but also to locate the changed items. Color change was made to one (Experiment 1) or two (Experiment 2) item(s) in each test array. In Experiment 1, individual items grouped by both proximity and connectedness showed lower detection performance than those only by proximity. In Experiment 2, the colors of two stimuli changed in the same group (intragroup) or across different groups (intergroup). As in Experiment 1, the same grouping effect was observed in the intragroup-change condition. In addition, the change detections were better in the intragroup- than intergroup-change condition. This effect was reversed when data obtained from correctly detected (not necessarily located) trials were analyzed. Collectively, change detections of individual items differed depending on grouping strength, group membership status, and levels of data analysis, suggesting that items represented in VWM affect one another in a hierarchical structure.

Objective To investigate the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applied over the prefrontal cortex on the improvement of verbal, visuospatial working memory and naming in healthy adults.Method Thirty two healthy adults (15 males and 17 females, mean age 37.3±13.0 years) were enrolled in this study. The subjects were divided into four groups randomly. They underwent sham or anodal tDCS over the left or right prefrontal cortex, for 20 minutes at a direct current of 1 mA. Before and immediately after tDCS, the subjects performed the Korean version of the mini-mental state exam (K-MMSE) and stroop test (color/word/interference) for the screening of cognitive function. For working memory and language evaluation, the digit span test (forward/backward), the visuospatial attention test in computer assisted cognitive program (CogPack®) and the Korean-Boston Naming Test (K-BNT) were assessed before tDCS, immediately after tDCS, and 2 weeks after tDCS.Results The stroop test (word/interference), backward digit span test and K-BNT were improved in the left prefrontal tDCS group compared with that of the sham group (p<0.05). The stroop test (interference) and visuospatial attention test were in the right prefrontal tDCS group compared with that of the sham group (p<0.05). Their improvement lasted for 2 weeks after stimulation.Conclusion tDCS can induce verbal working memory improvement and naming facilitation by stimulating the left prefrontal cortex. It can also improve the visuospatial working memory by stimulating the right prefrontal cortex. Further studies which are lesion and symptom specific tDCS treatment for rehabilitation of stroke can be carried out.

Objective To investigate the short term effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in healthy older adults aged more than 65 years by means of verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks. Method Twenty four healthy older adults (14 males and 10 females, age range: 65-78 years old) were enrolled in this study. A double-blind study was conducted. The subjects underwent sham or anodal tDCS over the left prefrontal cortex (F3 in the international 10-20 EEG system). DC was delivered for 30 minutes at 2 mA with 25 cm2 saline- soaked sponge electrodes. A cathode electrode was applied to the left arm. Before and after tDCS, the subjects performed 2-back verbal working memory and visuospatial memory tasks. The rates of improvement of the accuracy and the reaction time were analyzed. Results On the 2-back verbal working memory tasks, the verbal working memory accuracy was improved in the real group compared with that of the sham group. On visuospatial working memory task, the working memory accuracy and reaction time were not improved in either the real group or the sham group. Conclusion The results showed beneficial effects of noninvasive anodal tDCS on the cognitive function in healthy older adults. We suggest that tDCS induces functional changes on the left prefrontal cortex, and it improves the age-related cognitive impairment in the healthy elderly population.

${\beta}$-asarone (BAS) is an active component of Acori graminei rhizoma, a traditional medicine used clinically in treating dementia and chronic stress in Korea. However, the cognitive effects of BAS and its mechanism of action have remained elusive. The purpose of this study was to examine whether BAS improved spatial cognitive impairment induced in rats following chronic corticosterone (CORT) administration. CORT administration (40 mg/kg, i.p., 21 days) resulted in cognitive impairment in the avoidance conditioning test (AAT) and the Morris water maze (MWM) test that was reversed by BAS (200 mg/kg, i.p). Additionally, as assessed by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR analysis, the administration of BAS significantly alleviated memory-associated decreases in the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) proteins and mRNAs in the hippocampus. Also, BAS administration significantly restored the expression of Bax and Bcl-2 mRNAs in the hippocampus. Thus, BAS may be an effective therapeutic for learning and memory disturbances, and its neuroprotective effect was mediated, in part, by normalizing the CORT response, resulting in regulation of BDNF and CREB functions and anti-apoptosis in rats.

Previous studies indicate that physical fitness plays a protective role against age-related cognitive decline (e.g., Colcombe & Kramer, 2003). Using event-related potentials (ERPs), we investigated age-related cognitive decline in working memory processing and whether physical fitness positively influences working memory capacity in older adults. Data from 13 younger and 25 older adults (tested for their physical fitness) were analyzed. The participants performed a modified Sternberg memory search task while ERPs were recorded. The memory set was presented in upper-case letters, with a memory set size varying from 2 to 6. A lower-case probe letter following the memory set required a positive (“old”) or negative (“new”) response. Behavioral data showed age-related but not fitness-related differences. The ERPs, elicited by the memory set, showed (a) an age effect in the posterior P1 component, and (b) age and fitness effects in the frontal negativity. These results suggest that age affects general working memory processes, but physical fitness may help specifically to reduce the decline of working memory capacity.

Motion repulsion is a visual illusion in which perception of moving dots is shifted away from its actual direction with the presence of another field of dots moving in a different direction. Kang et al. (2011) have demonstrated that the motion repulsion also occurs for the perceived field of dots when subjects hold another field of moving dots in working memory. Here, it was tested whether the perceptual shift induced by working memory is resistant to the demand characteristics, subjects’ tendency of conforming to the expected hypothesis of the experimenter. Subjects were tested over two separate days. On the first day of participation, they were presented with a sequence of two random-dot motion displays and performed a perceptual judgment task for the second motion display while holding the first display in their working memory. On the second day of participation, the same experiment was run; but the subjects were informed that their performance was inaccurate (inaccuracy instruction group) or judgments were shifted away from the direction of the other motion stimulus (repulsion instruction group). Despite these instructions, perceptual repulsion was robustly reproduced. This result indicates that our visual working memory representation robustly alters perception, providing converging evidence for a close relation between working memory and perception.

Maintenance and manipulation of representations in working memory (WM) is the foundation for all cognitive processing. This paper will review neuroimaging studies focusing on the maintenance process of WM. In the first section, brain regions that increase activity during maintenance in WM are examined separately for each domain of information. Next, the controversy on the principle of functional organization of the prefrontal cortex, namely the hypotheses of domain-specificity vs. process-specificity. In the second section, the cognitive nature of the sustained prefrontal activity associated with WM will be examined. The differential functions of the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex will be discussed in relation to mnemonic and extra-mnemonic processes. In the third section, the overlap between the mechanism of long-term and WM will be reviewed along with the introduction of the component process approach to cognitive neuroscience.

In pursuit of the precise mechanism by which working memory (WM) functions in second language (L2) reading comprehension (RC), the current study examined whether strategy use or task difficulty influences the role of WM in L2 RC. Eighty Korean adult EFL learners participated, and their WM capacity, RC performance, and strategy use were measured. The variable of task difficulty was operationalized by the relative difficulty of texts on which RC items were based. The results showed that difference in strategy use brought about significant difference in RC performance when the readers with insufficient WM capacity had to comprehend difficult texts, whereas no such difference was found with easier texts or among L2 readers with more WM capacity. These findings not only illustrate intricate interrelationships among WM and other variables in L2 RC, but also provide a noteworthy implication for L2 reading instruction that L2 learners with deficient WM capacity could benefit from active strategy use when faced with a difficult L2 reading task. The compensatory role of strategy and the necessity of remedial strategy training for the learners with limited WM is further implicated for L2 reading classrooms.

Simultaneous interpreting requires special expertise which distinguishes the conference interpreters from other bilinguals. It is argued in this study that working memory capacity as well as knowledge about topic being discussed are the two factors that constitute the expertise of conference interpreters. Under such assumption, working memory spans of two groups of conference interpreters - seven interpreters in the Experienced Group with more than ten years of working experience and 16 interpreters in the Novice Group with less than three years of experience - were measured. Also, a survey was conducted to assess the topic knowledge of the two groups of interpreters. Then, English into Korean simultaneous interpreting experiment was carried out to investigate the implications of working memory capacity and topic knowledge on the interpreters' ability to transfer information from source language to target language. The interpreters' ability to transfer information was measured in terms of their ability to transfer meaning segments referred to as Idea Units and Essential Idea Units in the texts. The results of the experiment showed that while Experienced Group was able to transfer higher percentage of both Idea Units and Essential Idea Units than Novice Group, Novice Group of interpreters were more influenced by working memory span than knowledge while the Experienced Group was more influenced by the Topic Knowledge in their abilities to transfer information during simultaneous interpreting.

Research on relationships between textual and textual-plus-pictorial gloss types and working memory capacity has been limited at best. This study examined the degree to which these two gloss types and working memory capacity (WMC), assessed through a listening span task mediate vocabulary learning. 204 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners listened to a text with an unfamiliar topic, before and after which they completed a vocabulary test based on Paribakht and Wesche’s (1997) Vocabulary Knowledge Scale to examine their receptive versus productive vocabulary acquisition. While listening to the text, they received the meanings of twenty selected words through two different gloss types. The results revealed that textual-plus-pictorial glosses led to significantly higher increases in both receptive and productive knowledge. As for the predictive power of working memory capacity, linear regression analysis indicated that WMC did not play a role in receptive vocabulary acquisition in either of the input modes, whereas productive gain scores for both gloss types were equally, albeit insignificantly, predicted by WMC. However, no interaction between WMC and the modality effect was observed. This study confirms the modality effect on intentional vocabulary learning and suggests that the role of WMC is not mediated by gloss types.