Earticle

This paper attempts to broaden our understanding on how cognitive task complexity (TC) contributes to L2 learners’ and language professionals’ perceptions of task difficulty (TD). This study was conducted to allow a deeper investigation of the extent to which manipulating TC can influence perceptions of TD, what TC-factors contribute to perceptions of TD, and whether there is a perceptual match between L2 learners and language professionals. The study employed a mixed-method design in which 68 students and 26 language professionals evaluated the TD of two video-based narrative tasks. The students, who were L2 learners of English at a Jordanian secondary school, performed two tasks with increased TC manipulated by intentional reasoning (IR) demands. Data on learners’ perceptions of TD were collected qualitatively and quantitatively using a retrospective questionnaire. The language professionals, who were researchers with a TESOL background, read the tasks instructions and watched the two clips before deciding which task would be considered more difficult and why. Results showed a match between learners and language professionals on their perceptions of TD. Both groups rated the more complex task (+IR) as more difficult. Two categories of higher cognitive demands imposed by IR requirement, i.e. task-induced and task-inherent, were found to be the major contributors to the perceptions of TD. The findings have significant implications for the development of an index of TD, which is considered a priority for language teaching, testing and syllabus design.

The purpose of focus-on-form instruction is to attract learners' attention effectively to linguistic forms of the target language during a meaning-focused activity. However, there is always competition of learners' attention between to form and meaning due to the fact that human attentional resources are limited. Task difficulty is identified asa critical factor which depletes learners' attention during language activities by many researchers. The purpose of the present study is to examine how task difficulty affects the allocation of learners' attention between form and meaning during different types of focus-on-form instruction, which are Textual input enhancement and Dictogloss. The results showed that learners' attention to form during the instruction was not affected by the task difficulty, while their attention to meaning was negatively affected by it. it means that focus-on-form instruction needs to be designed appropriately based on learners' level of language proficiency in order for it not to be focus-on-formS instruction which focus only on linguistic forms separately from meaning.

In pursuit of the precise mechanism by which working memory (WM) functions in second language (L2) reading comprehension (RC), the current study examined whether strategy use or task difficulty influences the role of WM in L2 RC. Eighty Korean adult EFL learners participated, and their WM capacity, RC performance, and strategy use were measured. The variable of task difficulty was operationalized by the relative difficulty of texts on which RC items were based. The results showed that difference in strategy use brought about significant difference in RC performance when the readers with insufficient WM capacity had to comprehend difficult texts, whereas no such difference was found with easier texts or among L2 readers with more WM capacity. These findings not only illustrate intricate interrelationships among WM and other variables in L2 RC, but also provide a noteworthy implication for L2 reading instruction that L2 learners with deficient WM capacity could benefit from active strategy use when faced with a difficult L2 reading task. The compensatory role of strategy and the necessity of remedial strategy training for the learners with limited WM is further implicated for L2 reading classrooms.

The purpose of this study is to find practical strategies to make instructions comprehensible in the Communicative Language Teaching(CLT) class. CLT emphasizes the role of the interactions between students in the process of completing many different tasks. Task complexity and difficulty are the main factors in giving comprehensible instructions. Based upon relevant research, six different techniques are identified to lower the complexity and difficulty of tasks. These strategies were tested in the CLT English class with six regular students. Transcriptions from audio/video recordings and data from field notes and an interview were qualitatively analyzed to determine whether or not those techniques were effective. The results show that adapting task complexity and difficulty appears to be helpful in making instructions comprehensible.

Recently there has been heated debate on the nature of strategy assessment in task-absent situations where it might lead to learners’ over- or underreporting of the strategies they actually use. More specifically, it is argued that that learners need to be involved in the real process of completing a language task just before they are asked to report the strategies they use. The present study, thus, was aimed at investigating the effect of presence of tasks and task difficulty on advanced students’ reports of their listening strategy use. Results from the analysis of the data measured by the Listening Strategy Questionnaire and collected from 62 Advanced students, in three task conditions, indicated that (1) task condition (No Task, Easy Task, Difficult Task) has an effect on advanced EFL learners’ listening strategy use, and (2) considering each strategy subcategory under study, the subjects reported different frequencies of strategy use across the above task conditions. This was especially true for cognitive and memory strategies, whereas for compensation strategies the difference in frequency of strategy use across the three conditions was not statistically significant. The findings promise some implications for developing context-specific task design frameworks, and task-based strategy instruction and evaluation.

본 연구는 만성 발목 불안정성(chronic ankle instability, CAI) 집단과 건강한 대조군의 이중과제 걷기 시 과제 난이도가 시공간 보행 변인에 미치는 영향을 확인하기 위해 수행되었다. 연구대상자는 CAI를 가진 남성 9명과 건강한 남성 대조군 9명을 모집하였다. 모든 연구대상자는 선호 속도 걷기, 두 가지 이중과제 걷기를 수행하였다. 모든 걷기는 Optogait를 통해 분석되었으며 시공간 보행 변인을 산출하였다. 과제 난이도별 인지비용은 걷기속력을 통해 산출하였으 며 Wilcoxon Rank 검정을 통해 비교하였다. 그룹 간 비교를 위해 Mann-Whitney U 검정과 과제 난이도에 따른 차이 비교를 위해 Friedman 검정을 수행하였다. 집단 간 인지비용 차이는 유의하지 않았고 과제 난이도 간 인지비용은 유의한 차이가 나타났다(p=.012). 100-7 이중과제 걷기 시 한다리지지기에서 집단 간 유의한 차이가 관찰되었으며(p=.015), 과제 난이도에 따라서 모든 시공간 보행 변인은 통계적으로 유의미한 차이가 나타났다(p<.05). 본 연구 결과, 과제 난이도 가 증가할 때 두다리지지기를 증가시키고 걷기속력을 늦추면서 안정적으로 걷고자 하였으며 CAI 집단에서도 높은 과제 난이도를 수행할 때 한다리지지기를 감소시키며 안정적인 걷기를 위한 전략을 수행하였다. 이러한 전략은 에너지 효율에 부정적인 영향을 미치고 관절 압박력을 증가시킬 수 있으므로 이를 완화할 수 있는 중재 전략이 필요할 것으로 생각된다.

This study was conducted to identify differences in spatiotemporal gait parameters between those with and without chronic ankle instability (CAI) during dual-task walking. Nine participants were recruited for the CAI and control groups respectively. All participants performed normal walking and 2 dual-tasks walking. All tasks were analyzed and spatiotemporal gait parameters were exported using Optogait. Cognitive costs were calculated using walking speed. The Wilcoxon Rank test, Mann-Whitney U test, and Friedman test were performed for statistical analyses. For cognitive costs, there were significantly different between task difficulties (p=.012). The CAI group showed decreased single limb support compared to the control group during 100-7 (p=.015). In addition, all spatiotemporal gait parameters were significant between task difficulties (p<.05). Our findings revealed that all participants walked using safer gait strategies including increased double limb support and slower walking speed with task difficulties increased. Moreover, the CAI group decreased single limb support to walk more stably. Aforementioned walking strategies may have a negative effect on energy efficiency and increase the peak compression to the talocrural joint. Therefore, intervention programs for those with CAI should be included to alleviate negative effects of slower walking observed in this study.

問項困難度가 0%부터 43.9 %에 이르는 6 個種類의 17 個 種類를 Crutchfield 形의 同钃實驗器具에서 5 名 1 組로 男子 120名에게 同钃實驗을 實施했다. 各 問项은 2 個의 答枝를 갖고 그 中 1個 答枝는 正答이었다. 그 결과 集團壓力의 作用量은 課題困難度와는 相關없이 一定한 量이었다. 그리고 課題困難度가 높은 경우에는 集團壓力을 너무 많이 加하면 오히려 그 結果가 低下되고 또 集團壓力의 作用이 問越의 種類에 따라 差異가 있을 可能性을 示唆하는 結果를 얻었다.

A set of alternative hypotheses in a group pressure situation was testified experimentally. The hypotheses were as follows: Hypothesis I. If the group pressure exerts variable effects in relation with the difficulty of task in conformity situation, that is, easy task is less susceptible to the group pressure and difficult one more, then the confidence of the task will be a variable to account for the conforming behavior. Hypothesis II. If the hypothesis I is not proved, that is, the effect of group pressure is constant regardless of the difficulty of the task in conformity situation, confidence of the task could not account for the effect of group pressure, and a variable other than confidence should be assumed. Seventeen stimuli were selected from five types of tasks; verbal analogy, arithmetic reasoning, line, vocabulary, antonym and synonym. Each stimulus had response alternatives of two, and the difficulty level of the stimuli was ranged from 0% to 43.9 %. One hundred and twenty male students were tested in modified Crutchfield's conformity apparatus with a group of five at a time. Followings were the main findings. 1. The effect of group pressure was constant regardless of the difficulty of the task. The rank order correlation of the total conformity level and difficulty of the task was .94. The result seemed to be enough to reject Hypothesis I. 2. There seemed to be a indication of the selective effect of group pressure with the type of stimulus items. 3. The number of group pressure seemd to have interaction with the difficulty of the task, that is, when the difficulty of the task were extremely high, the amount of conformity decreases with more than three times of group pressure.

[목적] 본 연구는 과제 난이도의 자율성지지 연습이 초보 골퍼의 퍼팅 학습 과정에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지 규명하 는데 목적이 있다. [방법] 총 20명의 연구 참여자는 자율성 지지와 동반집단으로 구분하여 각각 10명씩 무작위로 할 당되었다. 실험 과제는 2m 거리의 가상 홀컵에 공을 근접시키는 골프 퍼팅이며 사전검사, 습득단계, 파지 및 전이검 사의 순으로 진행되었다. 측정 변인은 퍼팅 정확성, 자율성 지각, 자기-효능감, 그리고 정서적 경험으로 선정하였다, [결과] 첫째, 퍼팅 연습의 자율성 지각 설문에서는 집단에 따른 자율성 지각 수준의 차이가 명확히 확인되었다. 둘째, 퍼팅 정확성은 연습이 진행됨에 따라 두 집단 모두 향상되었으며, 집단간의 정확성 차이는 습득단계의 후반부와 파 지검사에서 나타났다. 셋째, 자기효능감은 자율성지지 집단이 동반집단에 비해 더욱 향상되었으며 학습효과를 판단 하는 파지검사에서 집단간 차이가 확인되었다. 넷째, 정서적 경험은 긍정적 감정에서 집단간 차이가 유의하게 나타 났으며, 부정적 감정은 집단간 차이가 확인되지 않았다. [결론] 초보 골퍼에게 과제 난이도의 자율성을 제공하는 연 습방법은 퍼팅 정확성을 비롯하여 자기-효능감과 정서적 경험에 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 기 술 수준이 유사한 학습자라도 개인별 학습 선호도와 자율성을 고려한 연습 프로그램이 필요함을 시사한다.

[Purpose] This study was to investigate the influence of choosing the task difficulty on beginner golfer's putting skills. [Method] A total of 20 participants were randomly assigned into two groups (Choice vs. yoked). The golf putting task was to keep the ball closer to target from distance of 2m. The experiment was conducted in the order of pre-test, practice phase, and retention & transfer test. The putting accuracy, perception of choice, self-efficacy, and emotional experience were selected for dependent variables. [Result] First, choice group have reported higher perception of choice than yoked group. Second, the choice group outperformed in putting accuracy and showed significant difference in retention test. Third, choice group showed higher self-efficacy and positive affect than yoked group. [Conclusion] Providing the choice of task difficulty produces beneficial learning effect on beginner golfer's putting skills. Which means performer's preferences and autonomy must be considered when organizing the practice program.

본 연구에서는 정보량과 난이도에 따른 목표 시각운동자극 상황을 변화시킨 조건에서 민감도와 반응시간을 분석하여, 인간이 정보량과 난이도가 동시에 변화하는 상황에서 어떤 수행을 나타내는지 알아보고자 하였다. 또한 운동탐지 수행에서의 남녀의 차이를 살펴보고자 하였다. 정보량 조건은 정보이론에 따라 자극이 제시되는 화면을 분할하지 않은 전범위 탐색주의과제(0비트 상황)와 화면을 동일한 크기 2면 혹은 4면으로 분할한 협소범위 탐색주의과제(1비트와 2비트 상황)로 구성되었다. 난이도 조건은 좌에서 우로, 1초에 한 번, 2픽셀씩 이동하던 흰 점들(소음상황)중에서 1초에 4, 6, 8, 또는 10픽셀 도약하는 것(목표자극)을 탐지하는 것으로서, 이동거리가 클수록 난이도는 감소한다. 참가자들은 모니터상의 움직임에 집중하고 목표자극을 탐지하였을 때, 신속히 적절한 반응키를 누르도록 지시를 받았으며, 하나의 정보량 상황에서 네 가지 난이도 조건을 모두 수행하였다. 실험결과는 먼저 정보량 0비트와 2비트 상황에서는 남학생의 민감도가 여학생의 민감도보다 높았으나 l비트의 상황에서는 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 또한 남학생의 민감도는 난이도 4픽셀과 6픽셀 사이에 급격히 증가하고 이후, 8픽셀과 10픽셀로 난이도 수준이 감소함에 따라 완만한 증가를 나타낸 반면, 여학생의 민감도는 난이도의 감소에 따른 완만한 증가만을 나타냈다. 남학생의 경우, 반응시간은 정보량의 증가에 따라 선형적으로 증가하는 양상을 보였다. 여학생의 반응시간은 정보량 0비트 상황에서 가장 짧았고, 1비트 상황에서 가장 길었으며, 2비트 상황에서는 중간 수준이었다. 이런 결과는 여학생이 정보량의 변화에 더 민감하게 반응한다는 것을 시사한다.

This study investigated the differences of subject`s performance in terms of the amount of information and moving distance of visual target in movement detection task and compared the performances of male and female college students. Sensitivity(d`) and reaction time(RT) were considered as measures for performance. The amount of information, based upon information theory, was varied for three independent tasks(0 bit, 1 bit, and 2 bit situations). It was operated by dividing screen area, in which white dots as background noise, scattered on the whole screen area, were moving in fixed 2-pixel unit from left to right. Subjects were asked to respond as quickly as possible when he/she perceived the target stimuli in each condition. Four different distances of target movement(4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-pixel) per same time unit(about 100 msec) consisted of 4 conditions within each task. The greater the target moves, the easier subjects detect. Therefore, these four conditions were defined as task difficulty. The results showed that male and female students showed similar sensitivity in 1 bit situation, but in 0 and 2 bit situations, male`s sensitivity was higher than that of female. On the other hand, reaction time, only for male, was in linear function toward the amount of information. But, for female, reaction time was longest in 1 bit situation and shortest in 0 bit situation. The results indicated that female, compared to male, was more sensitive to variation in the amount of information.

[목적] 본 연구의 목적은 골프 피치 샷 수행 시 과제 난이도에 따라 외적 또는 내적 주의초점 채택이 수행 및 학 습의 차이를 발생시키는지 검증하는 것이었다. [방법] 이를 위해 참가자들은 외적 또는 내적 주의초점 그룹에 무 선 배정되어 표적을 향해 피치샷을 수행하였다. 참가자들은 표적에서 10m(저난도)와 20m(고난도) 떨어진 곳에서 공을 쳤고, 공이 떨어진 위치에 따라 0-5점의 점수가 주어졌다. [결과] 그 결과, 습득 단계에서는 과제 난이도에 대해서만 유의한 주효과가 발견된 반면, 파지 단계에서는 주의초점과 과제 난이도 요인 모두 유의한 주효과가 있 었다. 이는 수행에 있어서 과제 난이도만 영향을 미친 반면 학습에는 주의초점 방향 채택과 과제 난이도 모두 영 향을 미쳤음을 의미한다. [결론] 본 연구에서는 주의초점 방향과 과제 난이도 간의 상호작용효과가 관찰되지 않았 기 때문에 과제 난이도에 따라 주의초점 방향이 서로 다른 영향을 미친다고 명확히 주장할 수는 없다. 그러나 파 지 단계에서 외적 주의초점 채택 그룹이 저난도 조건일 때와 고난도 조건일 때의 점수 차이 없이 내적 주의초점 채택 그룹에 비해 높은 점수를 보여주었음은 고난도 조건에서 외적 주의초점 효과가 크다고 추론해 볼 수 있다.

[Purpose] The present study examined the effect of an external and internal attention focus according to task difficulty when performing a golf pitch shot. [Method] Participants were randomly assigned to an external or internal attention focus group and performed a pitch shot toward a target from 10m (low difficulty) and 20m (high difficulty). The experimenter scored a pitch shot accuracy with 0 to 5 point scale. [Result] Statistical analysis revealed the significant main effect of task difficulty in the acquisition phase, but both main effects of attention focus direction and task difficulty were statistically significant in the retention test. The results indicate task difficulty has effect on both acquisition and learning while attention focus direction influenced learning only. [Conclusion] The attention focus direction and task difficulty interaction effect was not significant and therefore, it is not clear whether task difficulty varied the effect of attention focus direction. However, the retention test result shows the external attention focus group scored higher than the internal attention focus group regardless of the task difficulty. Together, this finding suggests that external attention focus has greater effect on the performance in high difficulty condition.

본 연구는 경험적 제품의 일환인 ‘반(半) 제품’이 소비자가 제품의 완성에 있어 직접 노동을 수행하 고, 이를 통해 제품의 기능적 효익과 경험을 통한 정서적 효익을 모두 얻을 수 있는데 주목하였다. 소비 자는 반제품의 조립과정에서 즐거움을 느끼게 되면 제품에 대한 가치를 더 높게 평가하므로(서문식 외. 2015), 본 연구에서는 조립 과업을 통한 즐거움이 제품의 가치 평가에 미치는 영향을 알아보고(H1), 소 비자 특성으로써의 자기효능감이 조립의 즐거움에 미치는 영향과(H2), 조립 과정에서 유발되는 상황적 특성인 타인의 피드백이 조립의 즐거움에 미치는 영향(H4)을 분석하였다. 이 후, 조립의 즐거움에 대한 자기효능감과 과업 난이도의 상호효과(H3) 및 피드백 및 타인과의 관계친밀도의 상호효과(H5)를 알아 보았다. 가설 검증결과 첫째, 조립의 즐거움은 제품의 가치평가에 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타 났다. 둘째, 자기효능감은 조립의 즐거움에 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 셋째, 자기효능감 이 낮을 경우 조립이 어려우면 즐거움이 감소하였지만, 자기 효능감이 높은 경우는 즐거움에 큰 차이가 없었다. 넷째, 제품 조립과정에서 타인의 피드백은 조립의 즐거움에 부분적으로 정(+)의 영향을 주었지 만, 피드백 여부와 타인과의 친밀도의 상호작용효과는 나타나지 않았다. 연구 결과를 통해 고객 참여 범위가 제품평가에 미치는 영향이 분석 되었으므로, 본 연구의 결과는 반제품 시장의 세분화 및 고객관 리에 기여할 수 있을 것으로 사료된다.

Experiential products usually incur consumer participation in the consumption stage. This research focuses on the 'kit,' which invites consumers to participate in the product assembly, such as products from IKEA. Consumers benefit from the functional attributes in the kit and also attain emotional benefits such as enjoyment and self-confidence by completing the assembly task in the kit. Based on the previous research, in which consumers feel the product more valuable when the assembly process is plausible(Suh, Yoo and Roh 2015), this research, in line, focuses on the consumer attributes and contextual features that maximize the enjoyment in the assembly process. First, we investigated how consumers' self-efficacy affects the enjoyment of the assembly process and the moderation effect of the task difficulty. The results show that self-efficacy has a positive effect on the process enjoyment, and when consumers have higher self-efficacy, the enjoyment diminished less even the task was difficult. Second, we investigated how other’s feedback during the assembly process exerts to the enjoyment. Our result showed that other's feedback partially had a positive effect on the enjoyment, whereas the relational closeness with the feedback provider had no significant moderating effect. Based on the results, this research provides academic and managerial implications in several aspects, i.e., customer participation area in the product consumption stage and guidance for the customer segmentation and marketing strategy in the kit market.

본 연구의 목적은 자기효능감에 영향을 미치는 자신감, 자기조절효능감, 과제난이도 프로그램이 자기효능감에 어떠한 영향을 미치는가를 보는 것이다. 이 연구는 초등학교 5.6 학년을 대상으로 실험 집단 10명과 통제 집단 10명으 로 나누어 총 10 회의 프로그램을 실시했으며, 그 결과는 실험집단에 긍정적인 변화를 보여, 학습에 대해 소극적이고 부정적인 학생들에게 할 수 있다는 자신감을 갖게 하고, 자기목표에 따라서 자신의 행동을 조정하고 개선하려는 자기 조절효능감 요인도 향상되었으며, 과제난이도 선호는 과제 수준을 도전적이고 구체적으로 선택하여 회피하려고만 하던 기존의 모습과는 다른 모습을 보여주었다.

The purpose of this study was to see the self-efficacy. This study selected 5th-6th grade in elementary school, then divided into an experimental group of 10 students and a control group of 10 students and a total of 10 sessions were given to the experimental group only. These results showed positive change in subordinate variable such as preference level to subjects and self-control efficacy.

The present study sought to investigate whether (i) the types of output task or (ii) the difficulty levels of target forms would have different effects on the learning of target language forms. To this end, three intact classes at Korean high school (64 female students) were divided into three experimental groups. They were asked to complete picture-cued writing tasks, reconstruction tasks, or essay writing tasks, which involved two target forms at different difficulty levels. Both the pretest and posttest were designed to assess the learners’ knowledge of the target language forms prior to and after the treatments. The results showed that the picture-cued writing and reconstruction tasks were more effective than the essay writing task in the learning of the relatively less difficult form. On the other hand, in learning the more difficult form, the students who completed the picture-cued writing task outperformed those who carried out the reconstruction or essay writing tasks. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

본 고찰은 10.27법난 발발 30주년에 즈음하여 법난의 역사적 교훈과 사회적 과제를 살펴 본 글이다. 필자가 본 고찰에서 제시한 것은 대략 다음과 같은 내용이다. 우선은 법난연구가 새롭게 되어야 한다는 전제에서 광범위한 자료 수집을 촉구하였다. 이제라도 법난 위원회, 총무원은 그 문건 자료를 확보해야 한다. 그리고 불교 내부에 있는 자료도 찾고 정리해야 한다. 이런 성과물을 총 집대성하여 추가적인 자료집을 발간해야 한다. 동시에 구술증언 채록도 불교인들이 주체적으로 추진해야 한다. 다음으로는 역사의 성찰 차원에서 법난연구소를 출범시켜야 함을 강조하였다. 법난 연구의 활성화는 연구소 출범에 성패가 달려 있다. 그렇지 않고 명예회복과 건물만 짓는 불사에만 매진한다면 그에 대한 비판이 초래될 것이다. 그래서 필자는 이런 전제하에서 사회적 과제의 실천으로 조계종 연구소 설립, 역사교육관 설립, 다양한 사회문제에 불교의 사상과 불교적인 방법으로 적극 참여해야 함을 강조했다. 이 같은 실천적 움직임이 수반되지 않을 때에는 진정한 법난의 극복, 법난의 역사적 의의를 만들기는 어렵다. 이런 필자의 의견이 10.27법난 연구에 참고가 되고, 법난의 기념사업, 명예회복 사업에 조금이라도 도움이 되기를 기대한다.

This consideration is paper researching historical lesson of 10.27 Dharma Difficulty and social task on the occasion of the 30th anniversary for 10.27 Dharma Difficulty outbreak. My suggestion in this consideration is as following contents. First of all I urged vast materials to collect in premise to study of Dharma Difficulty has to become newly. From now on the Dharma Difficulty Committee and administrative office of the Jogye Order should secure the documental materials. And To the next I emphasized the Dharma Difficulty Research Institute should be established in dimension of historical introspection. The Vitalization of researching Dharma Difficulty depends on whether the establishment of the institute is successful or not. Otherwise regaining the impaired reputation and constructing buildings are only conducted, there will be caused to blame for that. Therefore in premise I insisted active participation on the establishment of the Jogye Order Research Institute as practice of social subject, historical educational school and various in buddhist thoughts and a buddhist way. If such practical movement is not accompanied, it is difficult to make real overcoming Dharma Difficulty and historical significance of Dharma Difficulty. I expect my opinion can be reference to study on 10.27 Dharma Difficulty and help a bit for commemorative project of Dharma Difficulty and regaining the impaired reputation.

[목적] 본 연구의 목적은 골프퍼팅 과제를 이용하여 난이도가 제공된 상황에서 다양한 자기통제 연습의 효율성을 검증하는 것이다. 연습조건은 무제한 자기통제 집단(USC)과 제한된 자기통제 집단(LSC)을 사용하였다. [방법] 피 험자들은 48명의 남자 대학생이며, 집단에 각 12명씩 무선 할당되었다. 실험설계는 습득단계에서 4(그룹)×8(분단) 의 요인설계와 파지 및 전이검사에서 4(그룹)×2(분단)의 요인설계하에 분단을 반복 측정하는 이원변량분석이 사 용되었다. 종속변인은 평균반경오차(MRE)와 이원변량 가변오차(BVE)가 사용되었다. [결과] 습득단계에서는 MRE 에서 USC집단이 UY 및 LY집단 보다 높은 수행점수를 나타냈다. 파지검사에서는 USC집단이 그리고 전이검사에 서는 USC 및 LSC 집단이 각 동반 집단들 보다 효율적인 학습효과를 나타냈다. USC와 LSC 집단 간에는 차이가 없었다. [결론] 본 연구에서는 난이도가 제공된 상황에서 두 가지 방법을 제시된 자기통제 연습방법이 골프 퍼팅 과제의 연습과 학습에 있어 동반집단들 보다 효율적이었다는 것을 알 수 있었다.

[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to verify the effectiveness of various self-controlled practice in situation where difficulty was provided using golf putting tasks. Practice conditions used an unlimited self-control(USC) and a limited self-control(LSC) groups. [Method] Subjects were 48 male college students and twelve individuals were randomly assigned according to the practice conditions. Each experimental design of acquisition phase was 4(group)×8(block) factorial designs and retention and transfer tests were 4(group)×2(block) factorial designs. Two-way ANOVA with repeated measure on blocks were conducted. The mean radial error(MRE) and bivariate variable error(BVE) were used for independent variables. [Result] In acquisition phase, the USC group showed higher performance scores than the UY and LY groups in the MRE. In retention test, USC group showed more effective learning effect than UY group and in transfer tests, the USC and LSC groups showed more effective learning effect than each yoked groups. There was no difference between USC and LSC groups. [Conclusion] In this study, it was found that the two methods of self-control practices were more effective in the practice and learning of golf putting task than the yoked groups.

본 연구는 수학적 모델링의 과제공간을 설정하고 이를 기반으로 모델링 과제의 복잡성을 나타내는 평가척도(rating scheme)를 설계하여 그것의 타당도를 확인하였다. 예비 수학교사를 대상으로 두 단계의 과정을 거쳐 실험을 진행하였고 다음과 같은 결과를 얻을 수 있었다. 첫째는 종전의 문제구조를 표현한 문제공간을 발전시켜 모델링 과제에 맞는 과제공간을 설정하고, 모델링 과제의 복잡성을 수치로 나타내는 계량적인 평가척도를 설계하여 의미 있는 타당도를 확인하였다. 둘째로는 모델링 과제 복잡성의 평가척도, 학생 성취수준, 과제 특수 발견 전략의 개수 사이에는 일관된 패턴이 있음을 발견하였다.

The purpose of this study was to decide the task space and Rating Scheme of task difficulty in complicated mathematical modelling situations. One of main objective was also to conform the validation of Rating Scheme to determine the degree of difficulty by comparing the student performance with the statement of the theoretical model. In spring 2014, the experimental setting was in Modelling Cource for 38 in-service teachers in mathematics education. In conclusions, we developed the Model of Task Space based on their solution paths in mathematical modelling tasks and Rating Scheme for task difficulty. The Validity of Rating Scheme to determine the degree of task difficulty based on comparing the student performance gave us the meaningful results. Within a modelling task the student performance verifies the degree of difficulty in terms of scoring higher using solution approaches determined as easier and vice versa. Another finding was some relations among three research topics, that is, degree of task difficulty on rating scheme, levels of students performance and numbers of specific heuristic. Those three topics showed the impressive consistence pattern.

Many daily activities require people to complete a motor task while walking. Substantial gait decrements during simultaneous attention to a variety of cognitive tasks have been shown by a group of severely injured neurological patients of mixed etiology. And previous studies have shown that the attentional load of a walking-associated task increased with its level of difficulty. The purpose of this study was to analyze subjects’ gait changes are affected by the effects of arithmetic task difficulty and performance level. Participants performed a walking task alone, three different Arithmetic tasks while seated, and among them, two kinds of the simillar Arithmetic tasks in combination with walking. Reaction time and accuracy were recorded for two of the Arithmetic tasks. The mean values of the gait were measured using a Timed Up and Go test among 11 with post-stroke patients while walking with and without forward counting (WFC) and backward counting(WBC).There was significant Arithmetic Task Difficulty level between the 10-forward counting task condition(FC) and the 10-backward counting task condition(BC)(p=0.008). The mean values of T.U.G time were significantly higher under backward counting dual-task condition than during a simple walking task(p=0.009) and WFC(p=0.009). The change in T.U.G time during WFC was higher when compared with the change during a simple walking, but there was no significant difference (p=0.246). This study suggesting that a high interference could be linked with a high level of difficulty, whereas adaptive task enabled participants to perfectly share their attention between two concurrent tasks. Future research should determine whether dual task training can reduce gait decrements in dual task situations in people after stroke. And the dual-task-based exercise program is feasible and beneficial for improving walking ability in subjects with stroke.

본 연구는 국‧공립 유치원 중 과반수 이상을 차지하고 있는 단일학급 병설유치원 교사의 직무 수행 어려움을 질적으로 탐구함으로써, 그들을 위한 적절한 지원체계 마련에 도움이 될 수 있는 기초자료를 제공하는 것에 목적을 두었다. 이를 위해 A군에 소재한 단일학급 병설유치원에 근무하고 있는 6명의 유아교사를 대상으로 2009년 8월～2010년 2월까지 약 6개월 동안 집단 및 개별면담 자료, 교사저널, 교무회의록, 교육과정 계획안, 업무 분장표, 각종 행정문서 등의 자료를 수집하여, 질적으로 내용분석 하였다. 연구 결과 단일학급 병설 유치원 교사들은 1인 운영체제, 혼합연령, 종일제 운영, 초등과의 관계 등으로 인해 교육과정운영, 보호, 행정업무, 자기개발, 관계 형성 영역에서 다양한 어려움을 겪고 있는 것으로 나타났다. 단일학급 병설 유치원 교사가 겪는 직무수행의 어려움을 고려했을 때 그들의 전문적인 성장과 발전을 도모하기 위해서는 단일학급 병설유치원간의 협력체제 구축과 같은 구체적이며 실천 가능한 정책적 지원체계가 마련되어야 한다.

The purpose of this study is to create an improvement direction for early-childhood education spot and offering a basic information to support teachers in one-class public kindergarten. With this view, the research was executed to investigate difficulties of one-class public kindergarten's teacher. To verify the previous research aim, 6 teachers working in one-class public kindergarten were selected, and the research was carried on qualitatively from August 2009 to February 2010 by collecting various documents such as group/individual interviews, teacher's journals, minutes of school administration and official documents. The collected materials was analyzed by qualitative methods. The results are stated in the following Teachers in one-class public kindergarten establish and run the curriculum without any fellow teachers and cooperative system and have difficulties in heavy workload and lack of time. And they go through work burden and shortage of time while carrying on the tasks alone for management of kindergarten such as processing official documents and budget-related work. Foremore, they suffer form emotional loneliness by working alone in elementary school and lack of understanding for early-childhood education from elementary school teachers and adjunct directors adds the difficulties.

In L2 pragmatics, only a few studies have examined task complexity. Furthermore, the existing studies have predominantly focused on the cognitive dimension and have lacked consistent findings. Gonzalez-Lloret and Ortega (2018) and Pallotti (2019) have thereby contended that socio-interactional features be incorporated into task design. Along this line, this study investigated perceptions of L1 and L2 speakers of English regarding the difficulty of four role-play tasks with differentiated degrees of (dis)preference and imposition. Participants included 33 L1 speakers and 63 Korean L2 speakers at intermediate-level (n = 32) and high-level (n = 31). Results showed that participants’ perceived difficulty matched the design intentions exclusively affected by request size, responsibility for the problem, and persuasion across complex versions of the tasks. Moreover, the linguistic consequences of such factors entailed challenges among L2 speakers. There were also various factors that emerged for task difficulty other than the manipulated task design features, underscoring the importance of participants’ explanatory comments in L2 pragmatics.

Present study was performed to compare different types of teleoperation performance measures. A modified Cooper-Harper rating scale and a distance measure were newly introduced and compared to two traditional measures, the error rate and time-to-completion. Participants performed a simulated telerobotic task with varying visual display interfaces. The results of correlation analyses revealed that the modified Cooper-Harper ratings had a close association with the error rate measure. The distance measure also appeared to be a consistent performance measure, which accounted for both the error rate and time-to-completion. A further analysis, however, showed that the effectiveness of each performance measure varied with the level of task difficulty. The results imply that the choice of performance measure should be made based on the task difficulty as well as the particular task being studied. The results revealed here also have implication for performance measures of various display and control systems including aircraft navigation displays and tactical displays.