Earticle

English Tag Questions (ETQs) are frequently used among native speakers in various situations. Though ETQs look simple and easy to learn, some ESL students with particular language backgrounds report that it is difficult to learn and utilize ETQs naturally. One of my hypotheses is that the familarity of ETQs depends on whether ELS students have similar syntactic structure in their native languages to English. To investigate this inquiry, I have compared syntactic structures of tag questions from five different languages: Polish, Deutsch, Chinese (Mandarin), Japanese, and Korean. In addition to the syntactic analysis, I have also surveyed Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ESL students, who comprise major population of ESL students, for their reflections on ETQs; whether they can differentiate the meaning of some basic syntaxes of ETQs. The results showed that there were significant differences in the responses of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students: Chinese students are much better in general than Japanese or Korean students. This paper contends that ETQ is one of the idiosyncratic features of English, and suggests that the syntactic and pragmatic differences of various languages should be considered in order to teach ETQs effectively.

이 논문은 우간다의 농업 근대화를 이루기 위한 제도적 체계의 부족한 실상을 보여준다. 컨스텔레이션 모델을 바탕으로(Constellation Model), 이 논문은 농업 분야의 다양한 이해관계자들의 활동과 정부 차원의 제도적 협력과 정책을 통해서 농업 개발을 촉진할 수 있는 효과적인 방법을 제안한다. 이러한 이론적 관점으로부터 이 논문은 핵심적인 연구 문제를 제안한다. 왜 아빔 지역(Abim District)은 농업 개발에 있어 중요한 주목을 받게 되었는가? 아빔 지역의 농업 개발에 있어 제도적 마련과 협력의 영향은 무엇인가? 어떤 유형의 제도적 협력과 협력 체계가 북쪽 지역의 우간다와 아빔 지역에 문제를 효과적으로 나타낼 수 있는가? 이런 우려는 우간다의 농업 성과를 향상시키는 데 중요한 장애물이 될 수 있는데, 이는 역기능적인 제도적 마련과 규범은 농업 발전에 제약이 되기 때문이다. 연구 결과, 제도적인 차이, 관료주의, 제도적 확산과 중복된 역할은 농업 근대화에 걸림돌이 되어 왔다. 그러므로 개발 전략은 이 지역의 모든 관계자들에게 활력을 주고, 아빔 지역의 주요 관계자들과 현명하고 지속적인 협력을 통해 연결조직을 발전 및 심화시킬 것을 제안한다.

The paper shows that Uganda lacks an adequate institutional framework to achieve agriculture modernization. Based on constellation model, the paper proposes an effective way to promote agricultural development through policy and institutional partnerships at various levels of governance and action by various stakeholders in the sector. From this theoretical perspective, the paper raises salient research questions: Why is Abim District an important focus for Agricultural development? What is the effect of institutional arrangements and partnerships in agriculture development in Abim District? What forms of institutional partnerships and collaboration framework can effectively address the challenge in the District and Northern Uganda as a whole? These concerns are important obstacles to improved agricultural performance in Uganda as dysfunctional institutional arrangements and norms are major constraints to agricultural development. The findings demonstrate that institutional gaps, bureaucracy, institutional proliferation and overlapping roles have derailed agriculture modernization. Hence, the development strategy proposes creating and rejuvenating all essential players operating in the region, developing or deepening their inter‐linkages through judicious and sustainable partnerships with all the principal players in Abim District.

The first modern textbook published by the Chosŏn government, the People’s Elementary Reader (PER), marked a significant departure from traditional learning both in terms of content and form and played a pivotal role in introducing western-style learning. However, an absence of a thorough consideration of the PER’s obvious moral em-phasis provides only a partial picture of the complexity of late nineteenth-century educational reform in Korea. A close examination of the historical context of edu-cational reform and the PER’s publication in comparison with its American and Japanese counterparts demonstrates moral education was a necessary component of modern education and the modernization drive. As the Koreans saw useful parallels with their own Confucian traditions, educational officials replaced western ethics with Confucian moral education. Thus, the preservation of moral cultivation in the textbook along with the introduction of western-style learning was the embodiment of the slogan “Eastern Way, Western Technology” (tongdo sŏgi). This type of accommodationist form of education conformed to modern (at that time) educational trends and facilitated the introduction of western-style learning by appealing to Confucian yangban sensibilities.

This study investigates how the perceived politeness of English imperatives is shaped by the interaction between imperative intensity and social contextual variables. Intensity is conceptualized as a composite of three dimensions — directness, coerciveness, and urgency — linguistically realized through imperative forms ranging from bare imperatives to highly mitigated indirect requests. The study examines how Korean EFL learners perceive and select appropriate imperative forms across social contexts defined by power relations, social distance, and imposition. Power relations had the strongest influence on politeness judgments, with higher politeness forms preferred in hearer-dominant contexts and more direct forms in speaker-dominant contexts. Social distance showed a significant but weaker effect, whereas imposition did not yield a statistically significant impact, suggesting that relational factors take precedence over the burden of the requested action in Korean learners' politeness judgments. The study contributes to pragmatic research by reconceptualizing imperative forms as realizations of imperative intensity and highlights the importance of context-sensitive instruction in English language education.

The aim of this study was to investigate the concept and scope of Korean conditional imperatives and provide a comprehensive examination of the category. In Chapter 2, I argued for the usefulness of explaining conditional imperatives through a prototype theoretical approach. Conditional imperatives were defined as a broad concept of 'Imperatives interpreted in the sense of a condition or assumption.' Chapter 3 delved into a meticulous exploration of the process through which conditional imperatives acquired the meaning of a condition. We have shown that the 'then' implication arises from the relationship between the conditional and the subsequent sentence, and that the high frequency of this construction has led to the conventionality of the implication and the regularization of the interpretation of the condition. Furthermore, it was revealed that conditional sentences represent the "background circumstances that enable the speaker's subsequent actions or judgments contained in the subsequent sentence." By uttering a conditional imperatives, the speaker prompts the hearer to assume the content of the proposition, which has the effect of strongly expressing the speaker's conviction or commitment. This research sheds light on the specific features of Korean conditional imperatives as a linguistic phenomenon wherein the form of a command conveys the meaning of a condition. Although this study focused solely on Korean, further meticulous investigations are warranted to examine the commonalities and divergences between conditional imperatives in other languages, with the goal of uncovering universal principles underlying conditional imperatives worldwide.

This study explores a pedagogical approach to learning modern Greek imperative forms using machine translation and evaluates its relevance in language education. While imperatives frequently appear in textbooks and exams, they present challenges for beginners, highlighting the need for effective instruction. Machine translation can serve as a practical learning aid in this context. The study h as tw o k ey a ims: e valuating t he q uality of G reek-to-Korean imperative sentence translations from Google Translate and DeepL, and identifying effective learning activities for helping students recognize and acquire imperative forms, specifically in instructional texts. The analysis shows that although machine translation captures core meanings, it struggles with contextually accurate expressions and complex syntax. The study suggests using machine translation to familiarize beginners with imperative forms and support intuitive learning. For more advanced learners, comparing machine and human translations can promote deeper grammatical understanding. Ultimately, machine translation can function not only as a translation tool but also as a means for linguistic analysis and grammar awareness in second language learning.

Η παρούσα μελέτη διερευνά μια παιδαγωγική προσέγγιση για τ -ην εκμάθηση της προστακτικής στη Νέα Ελληνική μέσω της μ- ηχανικής μετάφρασης και αξιολογεί τη χρησιμότητά της στη γ- λωσσική διδασκαλία. Αν και η προστακτική αποτελεί πρόκλησ- η για αρχάριους, χρησιμοποιείται συχνά σε εγχειρίδια και εξε -τάσεις, καθιστώντας απαραίτητη μια αποτελεσματική διδακτι -κή στρατηγική. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, η μηχανική μετάφραση μπο -ρεί να λειτουργήσει ως χρήσιμο εργαλείο μάθησης. Η μελέτη έχει δύο βασικούς στόχους: την αξιολόγηση της ποιότητας μετ -αφράσεων από τα ελληνικά στα κορεατικά προστακτικών προτ -άσεων από τα συστήματα Google Translate και DeepL, και τον ε -ντοπισμό κατάλληλων μαθησιακών δραστηριοτήτων για την α- ναγνώριση και κατάκτηση των προστακτικών τύπων, ιδίως σε μ -εταφράσεις οδηγιών. Η ανάλυση έδειξε ότι, παρότι η μηχανικ ή μετάφραση αποδίδει τα βασικά νοήματα, δυσκολεύεται στη σ -ημασιολογικά ορθή απόδοση και στη σύνταξη σύνθετων δομώ- ν. Η μελέτη προτείνει τη χρήση της μηχανικής μετάφρασης για αρχική εξοικείωση των αρχαρίων με την προστακτική, ενισχύο -ντας τη διαισθητική κατανόηση. Σε μεσαίο και προχωρημένο επίπεδο, η σύγκριση με ανθρώπινες μεταφράσεις μπορεί να πρ- οάγει βαθύτερη κατανόηση. Τα ευρήματα υποδεικνύουν ότι η μηχανική μετάφραση δεν είναι μόνο εργαλείο απόδοσης, αλλά και μέσο γλωσσικής ανάλυσης και γραμματικής εμβάθυνσης.

이 글은 칸트의 정언적 명법을 비판적으로 분석한 것이다. 의무론적 윤리학에서 정언적 명법과 같은 도덕성의 최고 원리를 발견하는 것은 매우 중요하다. 그런데 칸트가 정언적 명법을 도출해 가는 과정에서 질료를 전적으로 배제한다고 주장하기 때문에 여러 가지 오해가 생겼다. 그러나 이것은 그를 그 스스로가 한 것보다 더 심한 형식주의로 오해했기 때문에 생겨난 것이 많다. 그러므로 첫 째로 해명해야 하는 것은 칸트가 정언적 명법으로부터 연역해 냄으로써가 아니라, - “준칙 윤리학”이라고 부를 수 있을 정도로 - 질료를 지니고 있는 준칙을 검토해 봄으로써 구체적인 의무들을 도출한다는 점이다. 둘 째는 1) 정언적 명법을 도출하는 단계와 2) 그로부터 의무들을 도출하는 단계를 구분하여 칸트의 의도를 분명하게 하는 일이다. 셋 째로 2)의 단계에서 정언적 명법은 단지 ‘적법성(Legalitä)’만을 검토하는 것이 아니라, ‘도덕성’조차 검사하는 기준이라고 하는 점을 밝히는 일이다. 넷 째는 정언적 명법으로 찾아 낼 수 있는 의무는 ‘허용’과 ‘금지’ 뿐이지 ‘명령’은 불가능하다는 점을 밝힌다. 그리고 나서 마지막으로 칸트가 2)의 단계가 아주 쉽다고 공언했음에도 불구하고 결코 그렇지 않음을 비판가들과 옹호자들을 통해서 검토한다; 가장 과격한 비판가인 헤겔과 쇼펜하우어를 이용하여 정언적 명법이 요구하는 보편화를 논리적 보편화로 오해하기가 얼마나 쉬운가와 심리분석적인 방법으로 규범의 궁극적인 근거를 물을 경우에 ‘이기심’이라는 혐의를 벗어나는 것이 얼마나 어려운가를 밝힌다. 이를 위해서 어떤 준칙을 보편화할 경우에 ‘사고 가능함’/‘원함 가능함’의 모순에 관해서 P.W.Taylor, H.J.Paton, D.Henrich 그리고 O.Höfe를 다룬다.

Hier geht es um die kritische Üerprüung des kantischen kategorischen Imperativs. Es ist wichtig fü die deontologische Ethik, das oberste Prinzip der Moralitä zu finden wie den kategorischen Imperativ. Kant aber hat behauptet, alle Materie völig säbern zu müsen, was zu verschiedenen Missverstädnissen gefürt hat. Aber wer z.B. den Formalismus schäfer als Kant selbst formuliert, dem fält es anschließend leicht, ihn als unmölich zu kritisieren. 1. Deswegen ist es zu erkläen, dass Kant nicht durch die Deduktion aus dem kategorischen Imperativ, sondern durch die Prüung von materialen Maximen mit diesem konkrete Pflichten gesucht hat, was es zur Folge hat, dass die kantische Ethik ’Maximenethik　charakterisiert wird. 2. Die Absicht Kants wird dadurch deutlich gemacht, den ersten Schritt, in dem Kant den kategorischen Imperativ sucht, von dem zweiten zu unterscheiden, in dem er aus diesem Pflichten ableitet. 3. Es ist nun nöig, klar zu werden, dass im zweiten Schritt der kategorischen Imperativ das Kriterium nicht nur fü Legalitä, sondern auch fü Moralitä ist. 4. Der kategorische Imperativ kann ein Kriterium fü Verbote zugleich nur eines fü Erlaubnis, aber nicht fü Gebote sein. 5. Obwohl Kant behauptet hat, dass die Ableitung inhaltlich bestimmter Pflichten ’klar in die Augen fält　, ist es nicht wahr. Das will ich zeigen, indem ich mit seinen Kritikern und Verteidigern diskutiere. Die Kritik Hegels weist darauf hin, wie leicht es ist, die vom kategorischen Imperativ geforderte Verallgemeinerung mit der bloß logischen zu verwechseln; Schopenhauer hat uns zur Kenntnis gebracht, wie schwer es, wenn man das Prüverfahren des kategorischen Imperativs psychologisch untersucht, ist, uns vor dem Verdacht zu verteidigen, dass der letzte Grund fü den normativen Charakter der Egoismus sei. Um mich aus dieser Verlegenheit zu ziehen, behandle ich bezülich von dem Widerspruch des ”Denken-Könen bzw. des ”Wollen-Könen P.W.Taylor, H.J.Paton, D.Henrich und O.Höfe.

This paper explores typicality of the forms and semantic functions of the English Imperatives. A list of the forms and semantic functions of English imperatives was examined from previous studies, and a Likert-scale survey was conducted with 13 participants, asking them to differentiate between typical and atypical English imperatives and to investigate variations in the degree of atypicality. The results are as follows: First, as for typicality in the forms of English imperatives, the subjects considered VERB and Please VERB to be typical, whereas Can(Could) you VERB, You should VERB, I need you VERB, and Let's VERB were deemed atypical. And when comparing the degree of typicality, it was observed in the following order: VERB> Please VERB> You should VERB> I need you VERB> Can(Could) you VERB> Let's VERB. Regarding the semantic function of English imperatives, the subjects judged ‘command(directive)’ and ‘request’ as typical semantic functions, while ‘advice, invitation, permission, and suggestion’ were seen as atypical. And when looking at the degree of typicality for semantic functions, they were ranked in the order of command(directive)> request> advice> suggestion> invitation> permission.

This study breaks away from existing theoretical studies to analyze the predicates of English imperatives in usage. This study included adjective imperatives as well as verb predicates in English imperatives and attempted to represent a comprehensive usage of the English imperative predicates used by English native speakers. Data for the study were collected from the British National Corpus web and analyzed using the collocation function within the BNCweb and web-based semantic analysis program, Wmatrix 5. The results are as follows: although the meanings of both verb and adjective predicates fail to demonstrate in semantic consistency, adjective predicates in negative imperatives are often related to Emotion. Syntactically, verb predicates are often used with personal pronouns and prepositions, while adjective predicates are often used with to-infinitives or independently.

Lee, Doo-Won. 2014. Negative Imperatives Revisited. Korean Journal of Linguistics, 39-1, 133-153. At PF, when the merger of the morphological features takes place in Korean, the negative imperatives are ungrammatical, if negation blocks the [imp] feature in C from merging with the verb. Short/long form Neg (hereafter, SFN/LFN) is a head of NegP between vP and TP and mal 'don't' in negative imperatives is a lexical spell-out of a combination of Neg and [Imp-Op] in C. Hence, while mal-negative imperatives are possible, short/long form negative imperatives are not. SFN is a syntactic construction, not a prefix attachment. In this vein, the SFN imperative of the morphological causative construction is ungrammatical. When negative prefixes such as pwul, pi, and mi are attached to a predicate, imperatives can be formed with the predicate because there is no functional head Neg which blocks the [Imp] feature in C from merging with the verb. These suppletive forms such as molu(-ta) 'not know' and eps(-ta) 'not exist' behave like other regular short-form syntactic negations (Chung 2007b). This is why the imperatives of suppletive negations are ungrammatical. (Korea National University of Transportation)

The purpose of this paper is to explain the implicature of the imperatives. we, first, answer the question of how the imperatives can be built up in terms of semantic and pragmatic aspect. Second, we point out some problems with previous analyses of the imperatives and then provide an alternative analysis in terms of Relevance(Sperber and Wilson (1995(1986)) Sperber and Wilson distinguish the actual world and the possible world, and the descriptive use and the interpretive use. On the basis of this theory, we analyze the imperatives.

본고는 스페인어 명령법에 대해 학습자들이 갖는 세 가지 의문점((i) 부정과 긍정명령은 왜 양립할 수 없는가? (ii) 부정명령에는 왜 접속법이 사용되는가? (iii) 2인칭 tú에 대한 긍정명령에 왜 3인칭 동사형을 사용하는가?)을 해소하는 방안을 논의한다. 첫째, Alarcos Llorach(1994) 주장을 재해석하여 부정과 긍정명령이 양립할 수 없는 이유는 이들의 결합으로 형성된 구조에서는 부정 이 어간/어근에 배타적 영향을 미칠 수 없게 되어 그 결과 화자가 의도한 의미가 도출되지 못하 기 때문이라고 설명한다. 둘째, 부정명령에 접속법이 사용되는 이유에 대해 두 가지 분석을 제시 한다. 첫 번째 분석에서는 접속법의 출현은 부정이 어간/어근에 배타적 영향을 미칠 수 있도록 해 주기 때문에 부정명령에 접속법 사용된다고 주장한다. 두 번째 분석에서는 통사적 관점에서 이유 를 설명한다. Neg에 의해 V to C 이동이 차단되면 최후수단으로 명령자질은 phi-자질과 함께 T 로 계승된다고 가정한 다음 동사가 접속법 형태를 취하는 이유는 명령자질의 이동이 T에 형태적 으로 반영되었기 때문이라고 주장한다. 셋째, (iii)을 해소하고 예방하기 위해서는 tú에 대한 긍정명 령은 2인칭 형에서 -s를 제거하여 만든다고 설명해주는 것이 더 낫다고 주장한다.

This study aims to answer the following three questions: (i) why are the negation and an affirmative command incompatible?; (ii) why is the subjunctive form used in negative commands?; (iii) why is the 3rd person form used even though it is a command for the 2nd person(tú)? Regarding (i), we argue that the incompatibility between the two is because the combination between them fails to derive an appropriate prohibition meaning. Regarding (ii), we offer two analyses. First, we argue that the subjunctive makes it possible for the negation to affect the stem/root and thus the intended prohibition meaning is derived. Second, by assuming that when V to C is blocked, the [imp] feature is inherited by T along with phi-features, we suggest that the subjunctive form is a morphological reflex of the movement of [imp] feature to T. Regarding (iii), we argue that in order to clear and prevent learners’ doubt it is better to explain that an affirmative tú command is formed by removing -s from the 2nd person singular form.

본 논문은 칸트의 정언 명령 중 세 번째 정식인 목적 자체의 정식이 어떻게 해석되어야 하는지를 밝힌다.칸트는 인간의 존엄성을 존중한다는 것은 어떤 의미이며, 인간의 존엄성을 존중하며 행위한다는 것은 어떻게 가능한지를 정언 명령 중 세 번째 정식인 ‘목적 자체’의 정식을 통해 설명한다.모든 인간은 이성을 가졌기 때문에 스스로 자기 행위를 결정하는 것이 가능한 자율적 존재이다. 인간은 스스로 자기 행위를 결정하기 때문에 자기의 행위에 책임을 지는 것이 가능하다. 그러므로 인간은 어떤 상황 속에서도 자신의 내부에 도덕의 기준과 도덕적 존재로서의 소질을 지닌다. 이성적·자율적·도덕적 존재로서 인간은 최상의 가치인 존엄성을 지닌다. 인간은 사물에 가치를 부여하는, 사물의 가치에 대한 궁극적인 원천으로, 무조건적 가치를 갖는 존재이다. 이러한 이성적 존재가 인격이고, 인간성은 이성적 의지를 소유한 인간의 본질적 특성이다. 그래서 인격 안의 인간성은 목적 그 자체이다. 최상의 가치를 지니는 인간은 다른 가치 아래에 놓일 수 없으며, 최상의 목적인 목적 그 자체이다.이는 나뿐 아닌 모든 이성적 존재자 일반에게 적용되며 따라서 인격은 단순한 주관적인 목적이 아니라 객관적인 목적이다. 또한 수단은 경향성과 관련하여 이해해야 한다. 인간을 수단으로 삼는 것은 경향성의 만족을 위해서, 혹은 그에 기초한 결과를 산출하기 위한 도구로만 이용하는 것이다. 따라서 목적 자체의 정식은 이성적 존재자 일반을 경향성의 충족을 위한 수단으로 삼지 말 것을 명령한다. 인간은 자신을 비롯한 모든 인간을 언제나 상대적 목적인 수단으로만 대해서는 안 되며, 나아가 언제나 목적 자체인 목적으로 대우해야 한다. 인간을 목적 자체로 대한다는 것은 그의 가치를 존중하는 것으로, 모든 인간의 자율적 의지 결정을 존중하고, 그의 행위를 방해하지 않으며 적극적으로 협조하고 장려하는 것이다.그러나 목적 자체의 정식이 현실적인 이용 관계, 임의적 목적을 위해 자신을 비롯한 타인과 맺는 관계들을 부정하는 것은 아니다. 절대적 목적인 인간이 자율적으로 살아가기 위한 조건들을 촉진하는 한에서, 자신과 관계하는 다른 행위자와 공통된 목적을 공유하며 행위할 때, 인간은 절대적 존재자로서 타자와의 접점을 갖는다. 절대적 존재자들의 자율적 행위가 자신과, 자신과 관계한 타인의 임의적 목적의 성취를 돕는 것이다.

This dissertation aims to show the meaning of the 'Formula of Humanity as End In Itself',which is the third formula of the fundamental principles of Kant's ethics.The formula of Humanity as End In Itself is the third formula of Kant's categorical imperatives. It is as follows : "So act that you use Humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means."Now the question is: what this formula means. Namely, what does it mean that you use a person as an end? Moreover, what does it mean further that you use a person 'always at the same time' as an end?If the idea and uniqueness of Kant's deontological-practical ethics can be well conceived, we must acknowledge the view of his moral philosophy that human being itself is not a relative end but an absolute-highest end, and is also a moral agent of practical reason as an 'thing-in-itself'.Since human beings should not be a means, but must be an end in itself, we should not treat a person and his act according to the mechanism of causation, but understand him and his act in the dignity of human beings. This means that a person is not only a means phenomenally but also an absolute end as a moral subject.But I don't think that Kant denied a person to be treated as a means in the real world. For example, when we go to a restaurant and want to order a dish, there is a waiter and we use him as a means in order to order and to be served. At this moment,he is a means of 'medium' to reach the common and same end which both of us have. In other words, it is an 'mediated' relationship through the common and same end. By this relationship, both of us as an absolute end itself take part in the absolute end autonomically in every action.

The primary goal of this paper is to provide a syntactic account for the difference between let imperatives in English and the Korean equivalent constructions, namely key-ha-la imperatives, in how they are negated with sentential negation. Specifically, the paper focuses on the hitherto neglected fact that sentential negation in English let imperatives can only target the entire sentence, while sentential negation in Korean key-ha-la imperatives can negate either the entire sentence or the base predicate dominated by key-ha 'let.' Answering where this cross-linguistic difference comes from, we argue that the verb let in the English let imperatives takes a small clause, lacking TP, an essential element for licensing sentential negation, while key-ha 'let' in the Korean equivalent selects for TP. Given this difference in the structural make-up, we show that the contrast between the two constructions in the scope of sentential negation can be captured by Zanuttini's (1996) generalization that licensing of sentential negation is contingent upon the existence of TP.

This paper challenges the mainstream social scientific approach that emphasizes “moral inferiority” in corruption and bribery in Central and Eastern Europe. We argue that in many cases, people participate in informal organizational resource exchanges not because of immorality or greed but rather because of powerful external forces. By using the case of contemporary Hungary to support this argument, this paper provides a systematic analysis of such imperatives. The findings of 50 in-depth qualitative interviews suggest that two main imperatives can be distinguished; macro-level social and meso-level organizational forces. Macro-level forces may be linked to historical paths, Hungary's socialist and pre-socialist social conditions, and its post-socialist welfare state development. Meso-level organizational forces are more general phenomena and can be found in many other countries in the world. Moreover, there are numerous categories within each theme. Some of them represent normative imperatives, while others are more material structural forces.