Earticle

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a chronic disorder characterized by physical dis-ability and disruption of brain function. We evaluated the effects of treadmill exercise on motor and memory functions in relation with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway using CP rat model. Rota-rod test, step-down avoidance task, 5-bromo-2’-deoxyuridine (BrdU) immunohistochemistry, and western blot for synapsin I, postsyn-aptic density-95 (PSD-95), PI3K, Akt, and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) were performed. CP was induced by maternal lipopolysac-charide (LPS)-injection with sensorimotor restriction. Five weeks after birth, the rats in the exercise groups were made to run on the treadmill for 30 min per one day, 5 times a week, during 4 weeks. Motor and memory functions were impaired in the LPS-induced CP rats and tread-mill exercise increased motor and memory functions in the CP rats. Cell proliferation in the hippocampus was suppressed in the LPS-induced CP rats and treadmill exercise increased hippocampal cell proliferation in the CP rats. Expressions of synapsin I, PSD-95, phosphorylated (p)-PI3K, and p-Akt were decreased in the LPS-induced CP rats and tread-mill exercise enhanced the expressions of synapsin I, PSD-95, p-PI3K, and p-Akt in the CP rats. GSK-3β expression was increased in the LPS-induced CP rats and treadmill exercise suppressed GSK-3β ex-pression in the CP rats. The present results suggest that treadmill exer-cise might improve motor and memory functions through activation of PI3K-Akt pathway.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to identify the effects of environmental factors on depressive-like behavior and memory functionduring adolescence. We performed behavior tests in adolescent rats exposed to environmental enrichment, handling, and social deprivationfor eight weeks. Methods: Wistar rats were randomly assigned to control, environmental enrichment, handling, and socialdeprivation groups at the age of four weeks. Results: In the forced swim test, the immobility time in the environmental enrichmentgroup was decreased than that in the control group (p=.038), while the immobility time in the social deprivation group was increasedthan that in the control group (p=.035), the environmental enrichment group (p<.001), and the handling group (p=.001). In the Morris water maze test, the social deprivation group had an increased latency time than the control group (p=.013) and theenvironmental enrichment group (p=.001). In the passive avoidance test, the environmental enrichment group had an increased latencytime than the control group (p=.005). However, the social deprivation group had reduced latency time than the sociallyhoused groups (control: p=.030; environmental enrichment: p<.001; handling: p<.001). Conclusion: These findings suggest thatenvironmental factors play an important role in emotion and memory function during adolescence.

Epilepsy is characterized by recurrent seizures and loss of neurons with abnormal rhythmic firing in the brains. In the present study, we investi-gated the effect of treadmill exercise on memory function in relation with cell proliferation and apoptosis in the hippocampus using pilocar-pine-induced seizure rats. Epilepsy was initiated by intraperitoneal in-jection of pilocarpine hydrochloride. The rats in the exercise group were forced to run on a motorized treadmill for 30 min once a day for 2 weeks. In the present results, treadmill exercise alleviated short-term and spatial learning memory impairments in the epileptic rats. Treadmill exercise suppressed neuronal degeneration and enhanced neuronal maturation in the epileptic rats. Treadmill exercise suppressed cell pro-liferation and apoptosis in the epileptic rats. Treadmill exercise alleviat-ed pilocarpine-induced memory impairments and suppressed neuronal loss in the hippocampus through down-regulation of apoptosis. These findings offer a possibility that treadmill exercise may provide a preven-tive or therapeutic value to the epilepsy-induced learning and memory impairments.

Aging is associated with declines in memory function and significant change in gut microbiota. In this study, we investigated how exercise affects age-related memory decline and inflammation, and gut microbi-ota diversity. Bl6 mice were divided into control, control and exercise, old, and old and exercise groups. Treadmill exercise was performed once a day, 5 days a week for 8 consecutive weeks. Short-term memo-ry was assessed using step-through test and spatial learning memory was assessed using Morris water maze task. Enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay was performed for the proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6, in the hippocampus. West-ern blot analysis was conducted for the neurotrophic factors, brain- derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tyrosine kinase B (TrkB), in the hippocampus. In addition, fecal samples were collected for sequencing and metagenomic analysis. Old rats showed decline in short-term mem-ory and spatial learning memory. Increment of TNF-α and IL-6 concen-tration with decrement of BDNF and TrkB expression were observed in the old rats. Decreased diversity of gut microbiota composition and de-creased beneficial gut microbiota were found in the old rats. However, treadmill exercise improved short-term memory, decreased TNF-α and IL-6 concentration, and increased BDNF and TrkB expression in the old rats. Treadmill exercise also increased the diversity of gut microbiota composition and affected the increase of beneficial gut microbiota in the old rats. In conclusion, treadmill exercise reduced age-related in-flammatory markers and effectively improved memory decline while enhancing the diversity and abundance of beneficial gut microbiota.

Stress during pregnancy has a negative effect on the fetus. However, maternal exercise has a positive effect on the cognitive function of the fetus and alleviates the negative effects of stress. This study aimed to demonstrate whether exercise before pregnancy has a protective ef-fect on prenatal stress-induced impairment of memory, neurogenesis and mitochondrial function in mice offspring. In this experiment, immu-nohistochemistry, Western blot, measurement of mitochondria oxygen respiration, and behavior tests were performed. Spatial memory and short-term memory of the offspring from the prenatal stress with exer-cise were increased compared to the offspring from the prenatal stress. The numbers of doublecortin-positive and 5-bromo-2’-deoxyuridine- positive cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of the offspring from the prenatal stress with exercise were higher compared to the offspring from the prenatal stress. The expressions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, postsynaptic density 95 kDa, and synaptophysin in the hippo-campus of the offspring from the prenatal stress with exercise were enhanced compared to the offspring from the prenatal stress. Oxygen consumption of the offspring from the prenatal stress with exercise were higher compared to the offspring from the prenatal stress. Exer-cise before pregnancy alleviated prenatal stress-induced impairment of memory, neurogenesis, and mitochondrial function. Therefore, exercise before pregnancy may have a protective effect against prenatal stress of the offspring.

목적 : 이 연구의 목적은 지역사회 거주 노인의 자서전적 기억 기능 수준을 측정하고, 자서전적 기억 기능 과 회상기능, 회복탄력성과의 상관관계를 분석하는 것이다. 연구방법 : 60세 이상의 인지적⋅정신적으로 건강한 지역사회 거주 노인을 대상으로 설문조사를 실시했다. 자서전적 기억 기능, 회복탄력성, 회상기능을 측정하기 위해 각각 한국형 자서전적 기억 기능 평가 척도, 한국형 코너-데이비드슨 탄력성 척도, 노인 회상기능 척도를 적용하였다. 변수 간의 상관관계 분석을 위 해 피어슨 상관관계분석과 위계적 회귀분석을 적용하였다. 결과 : 분석 대상자의 평균연령은 73.14세(Standard Deviation; SD = 7.59)였다 (n = 121). 자서전적 기억의 기능적 사용 평균은 1.99점(SD = 0.72) 이었다. 자서전적 기억 기능은 나이가 들어감에 따라 감소하는 경향을 보였다(p = .32). 자서전적 기억 기능과 노인 회상기능은 통계적으로 유의한 정적 상 관관계를 보였다(p < .001). 위계적 회귀분석 결과, 사회인구학적 특성과 건강 특성을 통제하고도 자서 전적 기억 기능은 회복 탄력성과 통계적으로 유의한 정적 상관관계를 보였고(β = 0.229, p < .05), 회 복 탄력성에 대한 자서전적 기억 기능의 설명력은 4.2% 였다. 결론 : 자서전적 기억 기능은 회복탄력성 관련 인자로 확인되었다. 자서전적 기억의 기능적 사용이 노인의 건강 에 미치는 유익에 대한 근거를 강화하기 위해서는 우울집단이나 인지저하집단과 같은 보다 다양한 건강수준의 샘플을 대상으로 자서전적 기억 기능을 측정하고 건강변수와의 관계를 밝히는 추후연구가 필요하다.

Objective: This study aimed to measure the autobiographical memory function (AMF) of community-dwelling older adults to analyze its association with reminiscence function and with resilience. Methods: A survey was conducted on cognitively and psychologically healthy older adults aged 60 years and older living in the community. The Korean Version of Thinking About Life Experiences, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, and Reminiscence Functions Scale for the Elderly were used to measure AMF, resilience, and reminiscence function, respectively. Pearson correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis were conducted to examine the associations between variables. Results: The mean age of the participants was 73.14 years (SD = 7.59) (n = 121). The mean score of AMF was 1.99 (SD = 0.72). AMF tended to decrease with age (p = .32). AMFs were positively associated with reminiscence functions (p < .001). After controlling for sociodemographic and health characteristics, AMF was positively associated with resilience (β = 0.229, p < .05). AMF explained 4.2% of the variance in resilience. Conclusion: The study confirmed that AMF is a related factor to the resilience of older adults. Further studies are recommended to measure AMF with various samples, including older adults with depression and cognitive decline, and to analyze it’s association with health-related variables in order to support the advantage of AMF in older adults’ health.

노화와 기억에 관한 세 가지 이론-용량감소이론, 선택적 감소이론, 보상상호작용이론-의 타당성을 검증해보고자 20대에서 80대까지의 정상성인 및 노인집단 428명을 대상으로 기억검사(K-MAS)를 실시하여 수행을 비교하였다. 연령대별 횡단비교로 기억지수를 비교했을 때는 연령이 증가할수록 기억수행이 일관적으로 저하되어 20대를 기준으로 했을 경우 40대에서는 Memory Quotient (MQ)가 15 정도 저하되었으며 60대에서 10 MQ, 80대에서 다시 10 MQ 정도 저하되는 양상을 보였다. 소 검사 별 비교에서는 모든 소 검사에서가 아니라 일부 검사에서 유의한 차이를 보였다. 그러나 교육수준을 매치시켜 연령대별 비교를 했을 때는 노인집단이 교육수준 10년 이상만 되어도 동일한 교육수준의 40대, 50대 집단에 비해 유의한 수행저하를 보이지 않았고 교육수준 9년 이하의 40대 집단에 비해서는 오히려 수행이 더 좋았다. 특히 교육수준 13년 이상의 노인집단은 상기 결과에 더하여 [교육수준 9년이하] 20-30대 집단의 비교에서도 유의한 수행저하가 없었으며 특히 언어기억에서는 [교육수준 12년이상]의 20-30대 집단과의 비교에서도 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 비록 노화와 기억에 관한 세 가지 이론 모두 타당성을 갖는 것으로 밝혀졌으나 본 연구를 통해 보상-상호작용 이론의 타당성을 경험적으로 증명할 수 있었던 것에 가치가 크다고 할 수 있다. 따라서 노인이라도 지적 자원이 풍부하다면 우려할 만큼의 기억력 저하는 나타나지 않을 것으로 예상되며, 이를 Stern의 인지적 비축 개념과 연관지어 설명하였다. 마지막으로 보상-상호작용 기제로 설명되지 못하는 기억력 저하의 원인들을 탐색해보고 지속적인 지적자극 제공의 중요성을 강조하였다.

In order to test the validity of memory & aging theory-Capacity Decline Theory, Selective Decline Theory, Compensatory Interaction Theory- the author examined memory function between age grade groups by Korean version of Memory Assessment Scales(K-MAS). The total number of subjects were 428, 20's 70, 30's 68. 40's 94, 50's 92. 60's 50, 70's 40, 80's 14. On the cross-sectional study, as the age increased, Memory Quotient(MQ) decreased consistently. In comparison with the performance of 20's, 15 MQ was decreased in 40's, 10 MQ was decreased in 60's again, and finally, 10 MQ was decreased in 80's again. And those differences appeared in some sub tests, not in all sub tests. But in that case of matching education level, another result showed. That is, [10 years and more education] elderly group did not show significant differences than the same education level of 40's and 50' group, and also, showed better performance than [9 years and less education] 40's group. Especially, [13 years and more education] elderly group even did not show significant differences than [9 years and less] 20-30' group, and moreover, did not show differences than [12 years education] 20-30's group in verbal memory scale. Although all three theories were proved validatory, this result lays emphasis on that Compensatory-interaction theory was validated empirically, thus it is anticipated that ‘high reserve’ old adult would not show memory dysfunction as regarded generally. Finally, explanations for various memory dysfunctioncauses in old adults, that can not counterbalanced by mental faculties, were presented, and the importance of consistent intellectual stimulation was stressed.

목적 : 본 연구의 목적은 지역사회 노인의 자서전적 기억기능과 주관적 건강의 관계를 확인하는 것이다. 연구방법 : 본 온라인 조사연구에서는 60세 이상의 우울증이 없는 지역사회 거주노인을 대상으로 자서전적 기억 기능, 주관적 건강, 사회인구학적 정보, 주관적 기억력, 사회관계 만족도를 측정했다. 이를 위해 한국판 우울증 선별도구(Patient Health Questionnaire-9; PHQ-9), 한국판 자서전적 기억 기능 척도(Korean version of Thinking About Life Experiences Scale; TALE-K)와 본 연구팀에서 개발한 설문지가 적용되었다. 주관적 건강과 자서전적 기억 기능 수준 간의 관계를 분석하기 위해 위계적 회귀분석이 사용되었다. 결과 : 112명의 자료가 최종 분석에 사용되었다. 대상자들의 주관적인 건강의 평균 점수는 3.36(표준편차 0.64)점이었고, TALE-K의 하위 영역별 평균 점수는 자기 기능 1.94점(표준편차 0.70), 사회기능 2.00점(표준편차 0.70), 지도 기능 2.13점(표준편차 0.68)이었다. 주관적 건강은 성별, 나이, 교육연수, 동거형태, 사회경제적 지위, 주관적 기억력, 만성질환의 개수, 사회관계 만족을 통제하고도 자서전적 기억 기능 중, 사회기능과 부적 상관관계(표준베타 -0.409, p<0.01)를 나타냈다. 자서전적 기억 기능 중, 자기 기능과 지도 기능은 주관적 건강과 통계적으로 유의한 상관관계가 나타나지 않았다. 결론 : 지역사회에 거주하는 비교적 건강한 노인의 자서전적 기억기능 중 사회기능이 주관적 건강상태와 통계적으로 유의한 부적 상관관계가 있었으며, 노인의 건강 증진과 자서전적 기억 기능 사이의 관계에 대한 근거를 강화하기 위한 추후 연구가 필요하다.

Objective : This study aimed to examine the association between subjective health and autobiographical memory function in community-dwelling older adults. Methods : This online survey was conducted to community-dwelling adults aged 60 years or older without depression. Patient Health Qusetionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), The Korean version of the Thinking About Life Experiences scale (TALE-K), and questionnaire developed by the research team were used to measure participants' depression, autobiographical memory functions, subjective health, sociodemographic characteristics, subjective memory, and relationship satisfaction. Results : Data from 112 participants were used in the final analysis. The average score of subjective health was 3.36 (SD 0.64). The average scores of self-function, social, and directive function were 1.94 (SD 0.70), 2.00 (SD 0.70), and 2.13 (SD 0.68), respectively. The association of subjective health with the social function of autobiographical memory (standardized β=-0.409, p<0.01) was statistically significant after controlling for sex, age, education, living arrangement, socioeconomic status, subjective memory, number of chronic diseases, and relationship satisfaction. Conclusion : The social function of autobiographical memory showed a statistically significant negative correlation with subjective health among relatively healthy older adults living in the community. Further studies are required to strengthen the basis of the relationship between health promotion in older adults and their autobiographical memory functions.

Purpose: The present study was done to examine the role of depression as a mediator of the effect of pain severityon memory function, physical function and sleep disturbance in older adults with chronic disease. Methods: Theparticipants were 158 older adults with chronic disease who were living at home. All participants completed structuredsymptom questionnaires. Data were analysed with the SPSS program, using descriptive statistics and regressionanalysis. Results: Mediation analysis suggested that pain severity influences sleep disturbance directlyas well as indirectly by its effect on depression. The ratio for sleep disturbance affected by pain severity directlywas 72.7% and for sleep disturbance affected by pain severity via depression indirectly, 27.3%. Conclusion: Theseresults indicate that effect of pain severity on sleep disturbance is mediated by depression. Pain severity affectedsleep disturbance directly as well. These findings suggest clinical intervention opportunities that include strategiesto improve depression for better pain control which in turn will result in reduced sleep disturbance.

본 연구에서는 단극성 우울증 환자와 양극성 우울증 환자가 우울 삽화에 있을 때, 언어적 기억력과 전두엽 관리 기능의 손상에서 차이를 보이는지를 알아보기 위해 메타분석을 실시하였다. 국외 학술 데이터베이스를 검색하여 포함 조건을 충족시키는 7편의 논문을 선정하였으며, 언어적 기억력은 단어목록 기억검사의 회상 단어수를 종속변수로, 전두엽관리기능은 언어적 유창성을 측정하는 단어 유창성 검사의 단어수와, 개념형성 및 전환 능력을 측정하는 위스콘신 카드분류검사의 완성 범주수를 종속변수로 하였다. 단극성 우울증과 양극성 우울증 집단의 수행 차에 대한 각 연구의 효과크기를 산출하여 전체 효과크기를 분석한 결과, 언어적 기억력에서는 두 집단의 차이가 유의하지 않은 것으로 나타났다. 언어적 유창성에서는 단극성 우울증 집단이 양극성 우울증 집단에 비해 수행이 양호하였다. 그리고 개념형성 및 전환능력과 같은 고차적인 인지능력에서는 두 집단 간 수행 차이가 가장 크게 나타났으나 동질성이 충족되지 않아 아직 결론을 내리기는 이른 것으로 나타났다. 마지막으로 이와 같은 연구 결과의 임상적 함의와 본 연구의 제한점에 대해 논의하였다.

We performed a meta-analysis of existing research to determine differences in cognitive function between unipolar and bipolar mood disorder patients who had experienced a major depressive episode. We found seven relevant papers through a close review of academic databases. With respect to verbal memory, the number of words recollected from a list of words, which represented a subtest of a list learning test was employed as the dependent variable. Also, with regard to frontal-executive function, the number of generating words in the word fluency test, and the number of categories achieved in the Wisconsin card sorting test, which was designed to measure concept formation and set shifting ability were selected as dependent variables. The pooled effect of verbal memory was not significant and thus, there was no significant difference between the unipolar depression group and the bipolar depression group. In contrast, the pooled effect size related to verbal fluency was significant and thus, the unipolar depression group performed better than the bipolar depression group. The pooled effect size of higher-ranking cognitive abilities, such as the concept formation and conversion ability was significant and exceeded a moderate effect size level (d>0.40). Further, the homogeneity test was also significant. Thus it is difficult to conclude that differences existed between the two groups. The clinical implications of these results and inherent limitations of this research were also discussed.

본 연구는 Craik와 Lockhart의 정보처리수준 모델에 기초하여 학습목록내에 관계 활용에 있어 연령과 관련된 기억결손여부를 검증하고자 하였다. 실험재료는 형태어-기본어-의미어의 3중단어 목록을 한 조로 모두 21조이었다. 대학생 120명과 평균 연령이 71세인 노인 36명이 피해자였다. 본 연구는 2(연령) x 2(게시방법) x 2(자료조직) x 2(조직정보)의 4월 요인설계를 사용하였다. 실험재료들은 한조씩 개별적으로, 또는 전체 조가 한꺼번에 제시되었다. 자료 조직 조건에서는 형태어-기본어-의미어의 순서로 체계적으로 조직하거나 각 조 내에서 단어 위치가 무엇으로 변화되었다. 검사지시의 경우 제시한 3중 단어 목록들이 체계적으로 구성되어 있다는 정보를 준 조건과 주지 않은 조건, 두 조건을 만들었다. 살험결과, 즉시자유회상, 지연자유회상, 단서자유회상 및 비단서자유회상에서 노인들에 비해 대학생들이 기본어, 형태어 및 의미어를 더 많이 회상하였다. 이 결과는 노인들은 목록내의 의미적 관계뿐 아니라 비의미의 관계도 잘 활용하지 못한다는 것을 시사한다. 연령과 관련된 기억결손효과는 특히 의미적 처리에서 보다 오히려 음성적 처리에서 더 많다. 연령과 관련된 기억결손에 대한 다른 이유로 주의의 완고성 (attenntional rigidity)에 기인하는 한정된 처리능력을 들 수 있다. 인출단계 역시 기억정도상의 차이와 관련되는 것 같다. 개별제시 방법보다 전체제시 방법이 효과적이었는데 이것은 노인집단에서 더 긍정적인 효과를 보였다.

Based on the levels-of-processing model of memory, the study tested the age-related deficits in the utilization of intralist relationships. Materials consisted of the rhyme-base-associate word set, totalling 21 free recall word sets. Subjects were 120 college students and 36 elderly persons with an average age of 71. The study employed a completely randomized factorial design of 2 (age) × 2 (presentation method) × 2 (material oranizational information). Materials were presented either individually by set or wholly with the total sets. Materials were organized either systematically in the order of the rhyme-base-associate word, or randomly by changing the relative word position in each set. Through test instruction, subjects were either informed or not informed on the organizing principle of the word sets. An intentional learning model was used. Young adults recalled more base words, rhymes, and associates than the elderly subjects on immediate, delayed, and cued or uncued free recall. It implied the elderly utilized less semantic as well as non-semantic intralist relationships,. However, the age-related memory deficit was due particularly to physical or rhyme processing rat her than to semantic processing. Another reason for the age-related memory deficit seemed to be the limited breadth of processing capacity which appeared to derive from attentional rigidity. The retrieval stage also seemed to be age-related to memory differences. The whole presentation method was more effective than the individual presentation, with a more differential positive effect for elderly subjects.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of computerized neurocognitive function program on cognitive function about memory and attention with stroke. Methods: 24subjects with stroke were recruited. Twelve of subjects received conventional therapy including physical therapy, occupational therapy and language therapy. Another subjects received additional computer assisted cognitive training using Computer-aided Cognitive rehabilitation training system(COMCOG, MaxMedica Inc., 2004). All patients were assessed their cognitive function of memory and attention using Computerized Neurocognitive Function Test(CNT, MaxMedica Inc., 2004) before treatment and 6 weeks after treatment. Results: Before the treatment, two groups showed no difference in cognitive function(p>0.05). After 6 weeks, two groups showed significantly difference in digit span (forward, backward), verbal learning(A5, $A1{\sim}A5$), auditory CPT(n), visual CPT(n)(p<0.05). After treatment, the experimental group showed a significant improvement of digit span(forward, backward), verbal learning(A5, $A1{\sim}A5$), visual span (forward, backward), auditory CPT(n, sec), visual CPT(n, sec), and trail-making (A, B)(p<0.05). Conclusion: Computerized neurocognitive function program would be improved cognitive function of memory and attention in patients with stoke.

본 연구는 정상인을 대상으로 20대, 30대, 40대, 50대, 60대의 연령대별 시공간구성능력, 시각기억력, 실행능력의 차이가 있는지 알아보고자 Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure 검사(Rey, 1941; 이하 ROCF)를 실시하였다. 그 결과, 시공간구성능력에서는 연령증가에 따른 차이가 없었고, 시각기억력에서는 회상 시 연령이 증가할수록 감퇴하는 양상이었고, 재인과제 시에는 연령에 따른 변화가 없었다. 실행기능면에서 60대가 다른 연령대보다 줄기선6의 정확성이 떨어지고 반복억제력이 높게 나타나 실행기능의 부분적 손상이 나타났다. 따라서 정상인은 60대를 기점으로 하여 기억력과 실행기능이 부분적으로 감퇴됨이 시사되었다. 추가적으로 50대이상의 고령자를 중심으로 뇌손상집단과 정상집단의 ROCF 수행을 비교하였을 때, 시공간구성능력, 시각기억력 및 실행능력에서 뇌손상집단이 정상집단보다 현저히 떨어지는 수행을 보여, 손상으로 인한 인지능력의 질적인 변화가 시사되었다. 따라서 ROCF는 시공간 구성능력과 기억력 및 실행능력을 탐지하는데 비교적 유용한 도구임을 알 수 있었다.

The purpose of this study was to consider the visuospatial ability, memory and executive function of normal adults according to their age groups by using Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test(ROCF). 71 normal adults were divided into the five groups by 10-year age group: I.e, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69 year. As a result, 60-69 year-old group acquired significantly low scores of the executive functions and memory recall, but not visuospatial function comparing to other groups. These results reflect that mild cognitive decline starts with 60 years of the elderly. Additionally, this research was to investigate for the aged in relation of cognitive function between the normal aged and patient aged group. Subjects were compose of twenty-two normal aged group and fifteen patient aged group who had mild traumatic brain injury and they all were aged over 50 years. Patient group had a significant visuospatial disability, memory deficit and executive dysfunction relative to normal group. These results indicate that qualitatively different cognitive function due to traumatic brain injury. Finally, the suggestions, limitations and further issues for future study were discussed.

목적 : 본 연구의 목적은 ADHD 아동의 작업기억과 집행기능이 일상생활의 조절행동에 미치는 영향을 분석하고, 보편적 발달 아동과의 차이를 알아보고자 하였다. 방법 : 보편적 발달 아동 36명과 ADHD 아동 22명의 부모 및 교사를 대상으로 BRIEF-R을 실시하여 조절행동을 평가하고, 태블릿 기반의 캠브리지 신경심리평가(CANTAB)를 통해 작업기억과 집행기능을 측정하였다. 두 집단 간 조절행동, 작업기억, 집행기능의 차이를 비교하기 위해 Brunner-Munzel 검정을 실시하였으며, 진단 집단에 따른 인지기능이 조절행동에 미치는 영향을 확인하기 위해 상관분석과 회귀분석을 수행하였다. 결과 : ADHD 아동은 보편적 발달 아동에 비해 중간 난이도 집행기능 과제에서 초기 계획시간 및 성공적 문제해결 횟수, 작업기억의 오류와 전략 사용 지표에서 유의미한 차이를 보였다. 또한 행동 조절, 인지 조절, 감정 조절 등 일상생활 내 조절행동 특성에서도 두 집단 간 유의한 차이가 확인되었다. 특히, 집행기능의 성공적 문제해결 횟수는 ADHD 아동에게서 조절행동과 더욱 밀접한 관련성을 보였다. 결론 : 본 연구는 ADHD 아동의 집행기능 중 문제해결력이 조절행동에 유의미한 영향을 미친다는 점을 제시하였으 며, 인지치료에서 이를 반영한 접근이 조절행동 개선에 효과적일 수 있음을 시사한다. 향후 연구에서는 더 큰 표본을 바탕으로 이러한 관계를 검증하고, ADHD 하위 유형별 특성을 고려한 분석이 필요하다.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate how working memory and executive function in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) influence regulatory behaviors and to examine differences between children with ADHD and typically developing (TD) children. Methods: Parents and teachers of 36 TD children and 22 children with ADHD completed the BRIEF-R to assess behavioral regulation. The children were administered the CANTAB to measure working memory and executive function. Group comparisons (Brunner-Munzel test) as well as correlation and regression analyses were conducted using Jamovi 2.6.19 and R 4.4.2. Results: Significant group differences were observed in initial planning time, the number of successful problem-solving attempts on medium-difficulty executive function tasks, working memory errors, and strategy use. Differences were also found in regulatory characteristics across the behavioral, cognitive, and emotional domains. Furthermore, successful problem-solving performance on executive function tasks showed a stronger association with behavioral regulation in children with ADHD than in TD children. Conclusion: Problem-solving ability in executive function significantly influences behavioral regulation in children with ADHD. Incorporating these functions into cognitive interventions may improve behavioral regulation. Future research should use larger samples and examine differences by ADHD subtype.

본 연구의 목적은 인생그림책 만들기 집단미술치료가 경증 치매 노인의 기억 및 인지 기능에 미치는 영향을 검증하는 것이다. 연구대상은 경기도 소재 A 요양원과 B 주간보호 센터에서 치매 진단을 받은 노인 중 연구 참여에 동의한 18명(실험집단 9명, 통제집단 9 명)이며, K-MMSE∼2(한국형 간이 정신상태 검사) 점수가 15∼23점인 경우로 선정하였 다. 실험집단을 대상으로 주 2회, 4주간 총 8회의 인생그림책 만들기 집단미술치료를 실 시하였으며, 그 효과를 검증하기 위해 한국형 간이 정신상태 검사(K-MMSE∼2 확장형), 기억검사 ECR(Enhanced Cued Recall), 기억전략 사용 척도(Mnemonics Usage Scale)를 활용하여 사전-사후 검사를 진행하였다. 또한, 비모수 통계를 통해 실험집단과 통제집단 을 비교 분석하고, 프로그램 진행 과정에서 집단원들의 반응 및 행동 특성을 미술 작품과 함께 다각적으로 분석하였다. 연구 결과, 연구대상의 기억 및 인지 기능에 유의미한 변화 가 나타났다. 또한, 단계별 반응 및 행동 특성을 살펴본 결과, 연구대상은 인출하는 기억 이 증가하고, 주요 인지 기능영역에서 긍정적인 변화를 보여주었다. 또한, 완성된 인생 그 림책은 자신의 생애 기억을 시각적으로 재확인할 수 있는 도구로 활용되었다. 이러한 결 과를 종합해 볼 때, 인생그림책 만들기 집단미술치료는 경증 치매 노인의 기억 및 인지 기능 향상에 효과적인 매개체는 물론, 치매 환자의 비약물적 치료 및 관리에 유용한 기초 자료로서의 기반을 제공하였다는 점에서 본 연구의 의의가 있다.

This study aimed to examine the effects of Life Picture Book group art therapy on memory and cognitive function in older adults with mild dementia. Participants included 18 older adults diagnosed with dementia, recruited from A Nursing Home and B Daycare Center in Gyeonggi Province (9 in the experimental group and 9 in the control group), based on consent and Korean Mini-Mental State Examination-2 (K-MMSE-2) scores ranging from 15 to 23. The experimental group participated in eight sessions of the Life Picture Book program, conducted twice weekly over a four-week period. Pre- and post-tests were administered using the Korean Mini-Mental State Examination-2 Expanded Version (K-MMSE-2), the Enhanced Cued Recall (ECR) test, and the Mnemonics Usage Scale (MUS). Nonparametric statistical analyses were conducted to compare changes between the experimental and control groups, and participants' responses and behavioral characteristics were qualitatively analyzed based on their artwork. The results demonstrated significant improvements in memory and cognitive function among the experimental group. Participants showed increased memory retrieval and positive changes across cognitive domains. Furthermore, the completed Life Picture Book served as a tool for visually reaffirming autobiographical memories. These findings suggest that Life Picture Book group art therapy is an effective non-pharmacological intervention for improving memory and cognitive function in older adults with mild dementia and provides a valuable basis for dementia treatment and management.

목적 : 본 연구의 목적은 가상현실 기반 주방 과제 수행 시 나타나는 수행오류의 종류와 인지기능과의 상 관관계를 알아보고자 함이다. 연구방법 : 신경학적 결함이 없는 만 60세 이상 건강한 노인 38명을 대상으로 가상현실 환경 내에서 주방 과제를 수행하였다. 주방 과제는 잼 버터 샌드위치 만들기를 시행하였다. 주방 과제를 수행하는 동안 나타나는 수행오류 의 종류를 2명의 작업치료사가 각각 평가하였다. 아울러 캠브리지 전산화 신경 심리평가(Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery; CANTAB)의 Stocking of Cambridge(SOC), Executive Function와 Spatial Working Memory(SWM)평가를 실시하였다. 주방 과제 시 보이는 수행오류의 빈도수와 각 인지 영역의 점수 간의 상관관계를 분석하였다. 평가자 간 신뢰도는 SPSS 12.0을 통해 분석하고, 상관관계 분석은 Python을 사용하였다. 결과 : Omission 오류는 SOC의 움직임 횟수와 SWM의 전략 사용과 통계적으로 유의미한 양의 상관을 보였다(p < .05). 반면 commission 오류는 SOC의 움직임 횟수와 통계적으로 유의미한 양의 상관관계 를 보였다(p < .001). 주방 과제를 수행하는 데 걸린 시간과 총 수행오류는 SOC의 움직임 횟수와 통계 적으로 유의미한 양의 상관관계를 보였다(p < .05). 결론 : 가상현실 기반 주방 과제에서 나타나는 수행오류는 작업기억 및 집행기능과 상관관계가 있고, 생태 학적 타당성이 높은 집행기능 평가로써 임상적으로 활용 가능성이 크다. 향후 연구에서 환자 그룹을 대 상으로 인지기능에 따른 수행오류의 특성을 더욱 면밀하게 연구해나갈 필요가 있다.

Purpose: The aim of this study is to investigate the correlation between the types of performance errors and cognitive function when conducting virtual reality (VR) based kitchen tasks. Methods: A kitchen task was conducted in VR on 38 healthy elderly people over the age of 60 and without any neurological conditions. The aim of the kitchen task was to make a jam and butter sandwich. Two occupational therapists evaluated the types of performance errors that occurred while conducting the kitchen task. In addition, the Stocking of Cambridge, Executive Function (SOC) and Spatial Working Memory (SWM) of the Cambridge Computerized Neuropsychological Assessment (CANTAB) were evaluated. The correlation between the frequency of performance errors seen in the kitchen task and the variable scores on the SOC and SWM was analyzed. The inter-rater reliability was analyzed through SPSS 12.0, and a correlation analysis was conducted using Python. Results: The omission error showed a statistically significant positive correlation with the number of movements for the SOC and the strategy use of the SWM (p < .05). By contrast, the commission error showed a statistically significant positive correlation with only the number of movements for the SOC (p < .001). A statistically significant positive correlation occurred with the number of movements for the SOC (p < .05). Conclusion: Performance errors in VR-based kitchen task are correlated with the executive function and working memory, and are highly feasible for clinical use as an evaluation of the executive function with a high ecological validity. In the future, it will be necessary to study the characteristics of the performance errors according to the cognitive functions in different patient groups.

The color gray in the cinema expresses the private or public memory and oblivion in the reminiscence scenes. The aesthetic function and meaning of gray that interacts with other elements in cinematic time and space are expanded in various ways. This study was analyzed the cases in which gray was used as the main visual style by limiting the scope to Korean films. Based on the traditional cultural symbolic meaning of gray, I analyzed how it was applied and transformed in films, and interpreted the cultural-social meaning by the interaction between gray and other elements. In film history starting from monochrome, gray has been used as a visual device suitable for realizing cinematic or imaginary reality. Gray is adopted when dreams or recollections are visualized as imaginary reality, and it is used when dreamy imaginations of daydreaming are demonstrated. Gray, which reproduces the dreamlike reality of imagination, is the concrete and realistic way of expression. First, in Korean films, gray is a flashback visual device that recalls the past, and is an intermediary visual form that materializes the imaginary. In films such as Ode to My Father (2014), DongJu (2015), A Resistance(2019) and The Battle : Roar to Victory (2019), the gray of the past is a visual device for cultural memory that builds the homogeneity and identity of the group. In the era of hyper-visibility, gray in black and white images is intended to be clearly remembered by unfamiliarity rather than blurry oblivion by familiarity. Second, in genre films with disaster materials such as Train To Busan (2016) and Ashfall (2019), the grays of rain, fog, clouds, shadows and smoke highlight other elements, and the gray color causes anxiety and fear. In war films such as TaeGukGi: Brotherhood Of War (2003) and The Front Line (2011), gray shows a more intense brutality than the primary color. In sports films such as 4th Place (2015), Take Off (2009) and Forever The Moment (2007), gray expresses uncertainty and immaturity. Third, gray visualizes the historical memory of A Petal (1996), the oblivion in Oh! My Gran (2020) and Poetry (2010), and the reality of daydreaming Gagman (1988) and Dream (1990). At the boundary between imagination and reality, gray is a visual form of dreams, memories and forgetfulness.

Recently, many computer-based programs for cognitive function training are being developed. However, they are not sufficient for voluntary training with interest and immersion since most of the programs developed so far have been developed for therapeutic purposes. In this paper, the contents were implemented by applying visual element based design which can provide interest and immersion for the elderly. It is important to note that this approach may be more effective in cognitive rehabilitation training. In the future study, it will be necessary to verify how much the visual design elements based on the elderly are effective for cognitive function rehabilitation.

본 연구는 성인의 스마트폰 중독이 기억손상에 영향을 미치는 과정에서 집행기능결함의 매개효과를 검증하고 상담개입과정에서의 함의를 알아보기 위해 수행되었다. 성인 300명(남 146명, 여 154명)을 대상으로 스마트폰 중독 진단척도, 집행기능결함을 측정하기 위한 Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale-Short Form(BDEFS-SF), 기억손상을 측정하기 위한 다요인 기억설문지를 실시하였다. 분석결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 스마트폰 중독은 집행기능결함 및 기억손상과 정적 상관을 나타냈고, 집행기능결함은 기억손상과 정적 상관을 나타냈다. 둘째, 스마트폰 중독 위험집단은 일반사용자집단에 비해 집행기능결함과 기억손상의 모든 하위요인들에서 유의미하게 높은 점수를 나타냈다. 셋째, 스마트폰 중독과 집행기능결함의 하위요인들이 기억손상에 미치는 상대적 영향력을 파악하기 위해 단계적 회귀분석을 실시한 결과, 자기조직화/문제해결, 시간에 대한 자기관리, 자제, 금단의 순으로 기억손상에 대한 설명력을 나타냈다. 넷째, 집행기능결함은 스마트폰 중독과 기억손상 간의 관계에서 완전매개역할을 했다. 본 연구결과는 스마트폰 중독경향이 있는 성인을 위한 상담개입과정에서 인지기능 향상을 위한 집행기능 재활훈련 프로그램의 개발 필요성을 시사하였다.

This study was conducted to examine the mediating effect of executive function deficiencies on the relationship between smartphone addiction and memory impairment and to suggest treatment implications for adults with smartphone addiction symptoms. For this study, 300 adults(146 males and 154 females) were conducted smartphone addiction scale, Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale-Short Form(BDEFS-SF), and Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire(MMQ). The results are as follows. First, correlation analyses showed that smartphone addiction, executive function deficiencies, and memory impairment were positively correlated. Second, Smartphone addiction group showed significantly higher scores on all of the subfactors of executive function and memory impairment. Third, Stepwise regression analyses revealed that self-organization/problem solving, self-management to time, self-restraint, and withdrawal were the best predictors of memory impairment. Forth, Executive function deficiencies fully mediated the relationship between smartphone addiction and memory impairment. These findings were considered to suggest that treatment programs for smartphone addiction group needed to include training for cognitive improvement such as executive function rehabilitation.

기업가치의 척도라 할 수 있는 주식시장에서, 가격제한폭제도는 투자자들의 효용을 증가시키며 시장안정에 기여함으로 계속 유지되어야 한다는 주장과, 시장의 효율성 측면을 저해함으로 개선되어야 한다는 주장이 아직까지도 대립되고 있다. 이러한 맥락에서 본 논문에서는 기업 가치를 기업 주식가격으로 대체하여, 가격제한폭제도의 변화가기업의 가치, 즉 주식시장의 효용함수에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지에 대하여 분석을 하였다. 특히 본 논문에서와 같이 가격제한폭제도의 변화에 대한 주식시장에서의 효용함수인 수익률과 위험에 대한 장기기억효과의 검정은 현재 국내에서 시행중인 가격제한폭제도의 변화가 합리적이고 효율적인 주식시장의 형성에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지에 대한 검정을 할 수 있다는 점에서 매우 큰 의미를 가지며, 아직까지 이러한 연구는 국내외적으로 선행 연구를 찾아 볼 수가 없다. 본 논문은 다음과 같은 점에서 기존의 연구와 차이점을 가진다. 첫째, 본 논문에서는 우리나라의 주식시장에 대하여 Markowitz가 제시한 평균－분산 모형(mean－variance model)을 이론적 기초로 하여, 우리나라의 주식시장에 대한 효용함수(utility function)를 유도 한 후, 가격제한폭제도의 변화가 기업의 가치라 할 수 있는 주식가격의 효용을 어떻게 변화시키는지에 대하여 분석을 한다. 둘째, 가격제한폭제도의 변화가 주식시장에서의 효용함수인 수익률과 위험에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지에 대하여 수정 R/S 분석(modified R/S analysis)에 의한 Hurst 지수(Hurst exponent) 검정방법을 사용하여 장기기억효과(long－term memory effect)를 검정한다. 이러한 본 논문의 연구는 아직까지 선행연구가 없는 실정이므로, 본 논문은 가격제한폭제도의 유용성의 평가에 관하여 큰 도움이 될 수 있을 것이다.

The studies until now are concluding that stock price in stock market follows random walk process by rational expectation hypothesis and efficient market hypothesis developing a lot of probability models. However, random walk process in stock market has a lot of questions actually. The main objective of this thesis is to test impact of price limit system on enterprise value utility function. The enterprise value utility function in stock market applied the mean－variance model of the Markowitz, it means the returns and risk. The risk means the historical volatility and AR(1)－GARCH(1, 1)－N model concretely. This paper has first identified unit root by using the augmented Dickey－Fuller test and the Phillips－Perron test, then testing by modified R/S analysis for each different Price Limit duration