Earticle

이 논문은 중세 보헤미아 왕국 북부의 독일인 이주사를 다룬 글이다. 특히, 13세기 후반 브레브노프 수도원장들이 하사한 특허장을 중심으로 이주 초청자 와 이주민들의 권리와 의무를 살펴보았다. 기존의 동방 이주 연구는 동유럽의 독일화 혹은 식민 운동 관점에서 수행되거나 이주를 제국주의적 침탈로 이해하 면서 가해와 피해, 우월과 열등의 이항 대립적 구분을 넘어서지 못했다. 그러나 중세 주데텐란트 개간 사업은 국가 주도 하의 대규모 이주도 우월한 문화 전파의 결과도 아니었다. 수도원장은 체계적인 이주를 통해 안정적인 수입 원을 확대하였고 이주민들은 자유를 보장받을 수 있었다. 따라서 동유럽 이주는 외부에서 가해지는 압력이 아니라 내적 필요성에서 비롯되었다. 브로우모프가 위치한 지형적 특성은 이곳의 촌락들이 보헤미아 왕국 내지와 는 다른 경로로 성장하게 만들었다. 이주민들은 황무지 경작 대가로 토지와 재 산의 소유와 상속·처분권을 보장 받았고, 영주에 대해서는 약속된 부역과 일정 량의 지조 납부 의무만 이행하면 되었다. 중세 보헤미아 왕국의 자유와 자치에 대한 인식은 주변부에서부터 싹트기 시작했다. 1300년 봉기는 새로운 곳에 정착한 사람들이 공동체성을 형성했음을 보여준 다. 동시에 이주는 침략이 아니며 갈등은 정주 이후에 생겼음을 보여준다. 봉기 는 봉건적 지배 질서의 해체가 아니라 개인과 촌락 공동체의 자결권 회복을 목 적으로 했다. 평범한 농민과 수공업자들이 정착했던 접경지대 브로우모프는 근 대적인 민족 논리가 아니라 현실 상황에 맞춰서 살면서 실리를 추구했던 공간 이었다. 문화적 수렴 현상이 이주를 뒤따랐던 뒤엉킨 역사의 장소이기도 했다.

The privileges granted by Břevnov abbots are supposed to be important sources for assessing the deliberate immigration policies of the host country, Broumov. The privileges, which guaranteed various autonomous rights and economic immunity, defined the rights and obligations between abbots and ‘German’ immigrants. The fact that immigrants were issued privileges suggests that the purpose of German immigration was to facilitate effective administration of the monastic territories. As revealed in the uprising of the year 1300, German immigrants forged a new collective identity over time. Legal aspects especially, such as written feudal contracts, property rights, and community autonomy, inspired them to develop topophilia, a strong sense of a particular place. Furthermore, a series of border villages grew up as a contact zone, which strengthened the Slav-German relationship in Bohemia. The historiography of medieval migration has long been dominated by national narratives. This paper offers a new approach to the migration problem between Sudetenland and Germany in the Middle Ages that goes beyond a traditional dichotomy between conquest and subjugation. The history of immigration into Eastern Europe no longer needs to find its motives in the national purposes of medieval Germany.

본고는 13세기 중세 독일의 변경에 설립된 나움부르크 성당 서쪽 제단에 위 치한 ‘우타 입상’을 둘러싼 기억의 궤적을 다룬다. 기억의 정치학 속에서 수단 화 되었던 중세의 한 여인을 둘러싼 역사를 되짚어보는 이 작업은 왜곡된 기억 을 만들어낸 국가사회주의 이데올로기의 이면에 가리어져있던 국경의 삶에 대 해 조명함으로써 당대 실제의 역사적인 삶의 모습에 대해 고민한다. 11세기 실존 인물인 우타는 역사적으로 주목받지 못했던 인물로 망각되었으 나, 그녀에 대한 기억은 국가사회주의에 의해 20세기에 재소환 된다. 정치 이데 올로기가 평범한 독일인들의 내적인 세계로 침투하는 과정에서 ‘기억의 정치화’ ‘정치의 심미화’와 진행되고 우타 입상은 독일 민족과 여성의 전형으로 정치적 도구화의 중심에 위치한다. 우타에 대한 이러한 민족적 프레임은 실제 우타가 살았던 시대의 삶과는 거 리가 멀었다. 11세기 폴란드-독일의 접경지대인 마이센 변경 주에 거주했던 우 타와 손윗동서 레글린디스와 관련된 인물들은 혈통적, 정치적으로 혼종적인 모 습을 보였다. 에케하르트 가문은 접경 지역에서 두 세계의 완충적인 역할을 수 행하였고, 슬라브 토착귀족들과 독일 지배세력은 정치적으로 전략적인 상호 공 조를 넘어선 우호적인 관계를 맺고 있었으며, 이는 점차 일상 속의 혼종문화로 확대되기에 이른다. 접경지대에서 이루어지는 조우가 단순한 정복과 복속이 아 닌 포용과 혼융적인 관점에서 바라보아질 수 있다는 것을 보여준다. 나움부르크 성당은 2018년 유네스코 세계 문화유산으로 선정되며 새로운 전 환점을 맞게 된다. 그 과정에서 이 입상을 만들었던 ‘나움부르크 장인’의 존재 가 주목받기 시작했다. 그는 프랑스를 주 무대로 활동하여 라인 강의 마인츠를 거쳐 동쪽의 나움부르크로 작업장을 옮겨 후기 로마네스크와 초기 고딕 양식이 조화롭게 구현된 예술작품을 구현해냈다. 그렇다면 우타 입상은 ‘독일인’이 유 럽의 문화적 유산을 접목해서’ 만들어낸 ‘초국가적’인 기억의 장소라고 할 수 있을 것이다.

This paper deals with the trajectory of memories invoked by the statue of Uta, built in 1240s on the eastern border of Germany. In this study, we trace the life of Uta, who was used as a tool in the process of the politicization of memory, and furthermore try to explore the daily lives of those on the border that were misunderstood due to the distorted memories that the ideology of fascism fabricated. Uta’s statue has been forgotten and ignored for almost 800 years. It is hard to believe that, until the 1920s, no one took notice of the statue. However, the national socialists used this statue for their propaganda, characterized by the “politicization of memory” and “aestheticization of politics.” In this way, Uta became the paragon of a typical German woman. This distorted memory of Uta does not represent her real life. The relationships between Germans and Slaves, who lived together in the eastern border, show the intimate family links based on blood and political interests. The family of Ekkehard played a role as the buffer between the two societies in the border area. In addition, the native Slavic tribes of the region and the German ruling forces had very close relationships that went beyond just political alliance, and this connection gradually expanded into a cultural hybridity in daily life. The encounter that took place within the border areas should not be seen simply as conquest and subjugation, but as a phenomenon of inclusivity and interminglement. The Naumburg Cathedral reached a new turning point when it was selected as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2018. In the process, the presence of the “Naumburg Master”, who created the statue of Uta, began to gain attention. He mainly worked in Northern France and moved through the Mainz to Naumburg in the East. Therefore, we can say that the statue of Uta is a transnational site of European memory, designed by one German artist who adapted the cultural heritage of a neighboring country.

신성로마제국의 황제 오토 2세와 비잔티움의 테오파노의 결혼식(972)을 통해서 비잔틴 문화가 독일에 수렴되는 과정을 고찰하는 것이 본고의 목적이다. 특히, 테오파노를 중심으로 한 왕실 여성들의 역할과 이들의 상호 협력관계를 살펴보면서, 972년 이후 다양한 비잔틴적 전통이 독일 지역으로 전파되었음을 확인할 수 있었다. 이 과정에서 테오파노는 모국문화를 전파하는 문화 전도사로서의 역할을 적극적으로 수행하였다. 테오파노는 제국의 여성 통치자들과 강한 연대를 형성하였고, 왕실 수녀원은 문화 전파의 발판이 되었다. 성모 마리아와 정교회의 성인을 수호성인으로 선택한 교회와 수도원 설립, 성유물의 수입과 기증, 정교회 수도사와 학자 초빙, 정교회 전례의식 장려, 그리스어 서적 필사, 비잔틴 예술가 초청과 예술작품 제작지원 등의 방법으로 테오파노와 오토 왕실의 여성들은 비잔틴 문화를 서유럽에 이식시켰다. 외래문화에 대한 저항과 거부, 상층 엘리트 중심의 문화 전파 현상에도 불구하고, 모계 중심의 전파로 비잔틴 문화는 왕실의 보호와 지원을 받으면서 지배 계층 내부로 유입되었다. 이 과정에서 테오파노는 현지 주류사회와의 상호작용에도 소극적이지 않았으며, 상이한 문화를 수용하고 자신의 목적에 맞게 융합 내지는 활용하는 절충주의적 태도를 견지하면서, 모국문화와 서유럽 문화를 통합적으로 지향하는 모습을 보여주었다.

Throughout the period of Theophano’s marriage (972) to her death (991), Byzantine culture spread north to Ottonian Germany. By becoming Empress Consort of the Holy Roman Empire, Theophano exerted a butterfly effect on art, architecture, and the diplomatic documents of the chancellery. Furthermore, she did not abandon her relationship with Byzantine religion and culture, and consequently played the role of cultural ambassador. To assist in the transmission of the Byzantine culture, she also used the royal female religious foundations at Gandersheim, Quedlingburg, and Essen, to form a close community with the royal women. Through the translation of Greek literature, the provision of education for the nuns, and the invitation of the orthodox spiritual fathers, she successfully transplanted her native culture into Germany. Even though there was occasionally resistance to foreign cultural influence, the cultural transmission and mediation through the maternal line played a significant role in the diffusion of Byzantine culture among the Ottonian elite. With royal aid and protection, Byzantine culture diffused into the members of the royal family. The Greek-Latin bilingualism created a favorable environment for fostering social cohesion about ‘the other’ or integration with others. Despite criticism from clerical writers, the continuous use of her own language contributed to Theophano’s cultural identity. However, she was not a passive recipient of mutual interaction with the local culture, and maintained a close relationship with both local and Byzantine people to listen to their advice and opinions. Theophano’s grand plan was to adopt, integrate, and compromise the elements of both cultures.

The purpose of this study is to investigate women’s political activities and participation in the Middle Ages, which has been a scholarly lacuna. Medieval politics has been recognized as a male-dominated area from which women were totally excluded. Beatrice’s revolt against her husband provides a clue that women were actively involved in politics, and therefore the medieval female should not be evaluated as politically incompetent. Similar cases have also been observed in the lives of women in many great and small noble families. In these households, noblewomen assumed the roles and responsibilities of wives and mothers, but at the same time represented and protected the interests of their families of origin. These ambiguous attitudes are due to the fact that medieval marriage was more of a family union than one of personal affection, and many women attained political standing due to their kinship ties. In conclusion, the medieval relationships between wives and husbands can be understood within their family constellations. The revolt of Beatrice alludes to this interesting political and social structure in the twelfth century.

Joseph R. Strayer deals with the meaning of the state in his book On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State, which was written in 1970. In the book, he examined the definition of a state from the perspective of European History. His theory of the state is based on the situation in the United States in the 1960s. At that time, the United States was dealing with internal conflicts and divisions between the power of the state and civil society, as well as the ramifications of the Cold War. Strayer described the characteristics of state-building in Europe. Firstly, he recognized the state as having positive attributes because it had developed through rational processes such as the formation of institutions. In recommending England as the best model among many different countries, he showed an Anglophilic propensity. The fact that only a few governing elites founded and developed the state is another characteristic of the medieval state that Strayer focused on, and this is called laicization. Strayer further equated state-building with the formation of institutions. Finally, he advanced ideas which broke with the dominant discourse that divided the Middle and the Modern Ages before and after the 16th century. But his approach had several problems. For Strayer, the state was an entity that should be respected, so his theory of the state ignored the dark side of violences, which the state uses. He also ignored the common people who play an important role in the establishment of a modern state. He understood state-building simply as a top-down process conducted by only a few governing elites. Furthermore, his theory of the state, which emphasized the particularity of Europe, not only ignored regional characteristics of non-European countries, but also, by postulating the 12th century as the starting point of the Modern Ages, he divorced the new Modern Ages from the past. Strayer’s book was written at the time of the Cold War, when the United States adopted Wilsonism as its foreign policy. During this time, one of the main purposes of the United States was to support the Third World, and Strayer actively participated in this policy making in the same way as his teacher, C. H. Haskins. Thus, the book was planned as a project on modernization. Strayer combined historical fact and contemporary ideology and wrote the book with realistic purpose. In the conclusion, Strayer used history as the weapon of political ideology, while, on the other hand, based on a realistic and practical view of history, he demonstrated the efficacy of historical study. At this point, his study contains a plethora of suggestions concerning the mutual relationship between history and ideology.

Hildegund von Schönau has the remarkable reputation of being the most famous of the cross-dressing female saints. Disguised as a boy, she joined the pilgrims journeying to Jerusalem. After returning to Germany, she maintained her male disguise and lived as a male for the rest of her life. Hildegund struggled alone to overcome all of the insecurities of her double life. She “begged and attended the school.” Deemed to be an intelligent young man, she was entrusted to carry a secret letter to the pope in Verona. After successfully completing her mission, she entered the monastery at Schönau under the alias of Joseph. While still in her first year as a novice, she fell ill and died in 1188. Five vitae give a remarkable account of her transgenderism and adventure through the Holy Land and Europe. Medieval cultural and social factors played a very significant role in influencing her decisions about her transsexualism. Hildegund’s biographers repeatedly record her psychological duress in concealing her identity and renouncing her gender. A survey of Hildegund’s life gives the impression that she strongly desired to change her gender and adopt a male role. In modern terms, Hildegund fits into the classification of transgenderism.

Cultural Approach to Medieval Women focused on the Penitentials Yong-Ku Cha The confessional manuals known as penitentials were very popular until the twelfth century, when they became suppressed and the newly developed system of Church (canon) law filled the need. Their use spread from Ireland to Britain, then to northern France, Italy, Spain and finally to Germany. Twenty-five percent to forty-five percent of the sins listed in extant penitentials are sexual sins, including all forms of non-reproductive sex, oral and anal intercourse, and sex at various banned times. So penitentials can be used as valuable sources in the study of gender history of the early Middle Ages. While the significance of the penitentials as historical evidence was not always appreciated by earlier socio-economic historians, the present study does purpose to investigate the cultural meanings contained in the penitentials. It has focused on the issues concerning women such as divorce, remarriage, practicing magic, concubinage, rape, abortion, contraception and lesbianism. In short, this research sheds a useful light on the new aspects of gender problems: the penitentials play a central role in comprehending everyday life of women in the early middle ages. After this journey through the penitentials, one might speculate that: the penitentials were engaged in the church's strenuous combat against the groups, who had a strong attachment to more diversified, open, and freely expressed sexuality than could be countenanced by the Christian sexual ethics. Furthermore, the many canons of the penitentials, such as sexual abstinence at various banned times and possibilities of divorce/remarriage, indicate that the medieval Church was ‘neither’ anti-sexual ‘nor’ misogyn, as usually suspected. (Chungang University / ygcha@cau.ac.kr)

Patristic relationship with women are seemingly aloof. But Augustine is exeptional in that he describes his vital experience as a repentant son and an ardent lover. In contrast to another patristic writers, he does not display woman-hate as such. He directs his aggression against male concupiscence. The sexless intellect (mens rationalis) is defined as created in God’s image. Augustine is the first author who directly confronts I Cor. 11,7 by affirming that women too are created in God’s image and the sexless rational soul is defined as created in God’s image. Nevertheless, Augustine’s perspective is dualistic, since he argues the androcentric sex roles in terms of God-willed gender hierarchy. This combined malecentered and dualistic perspective is the typology of Augustine‘s view of female sex.

Femina est mas occasionatus－Aristotle's Effect on the Thomas Aquinas' View of Female Sex－Yong-Gu Cha Thomas Aquinas follow Aristotle in his view that male is ordered to the more noble activity, intellectual knowledge, whereas the female, although possessing a rational soul, was created solely with respect to her sexuality, her body, as an aid in reproduction for the preservation of the species. Thomas also follows Aristotelian biology in his assertion that the girl child represents a defective haman being, the result of an accident to the male sperm, which was thought to contaim the complete human being in potentia and to reproduce by nature the likeness of its origin, that is, another male. This finality of the female as a mere instrumentality, an aid to reproduction, is the only explanation Thomas can offer for the existence of a “second sex”, since for any other activity man would have been better served by a male helpmate. On the other hand, Thomas' View of Female Sex has a positive core: he insisted in theory on a societas amicabilis and equivalence of male and female in the order of salvation. In attempting to reconcile Genesis with Aristotle’s physiology, he came to the conclusion, that original sin wa passed from Adam through the male line to the entire huamn race. Just as there ist no point in branding Thomas misogynist, there is no reason to go to the opposite extreme, to single out certain isolated phenomena as harbingers of feminist sympathies. Ahistorical interpretation is also to be avoided.

Little has been written on the problem of the woman in medieval theology in comparison with other eras of Church History. The New Testament and patristic ages have attracted far more attention. Through women came death, suffering, and toil into the world. So taught the Bibel and patristic tradition. It should come as no surprise that clerical thought in this period was misogynist. On the another hand, the medieval theological tradition also does have, as we have seen, a positive core; the medieval Church insisted in theory on a true mutuality and moral equivalence between the sexes. However often the medieval commitment to spiritual equivalence was under- mined by androcentric and patriarchal assumptions. Just as there is no point in branding the Middle Ages misogynist, there ist no reason to go to the opposite extreme, to single out certain isolated phen- omena as harbingers of feminist sympathies. Ahistorical interpretation is also to be avoided