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The instructed acquisition of the English articles (EAs) has proved to be an ordeal for L2 learners, irrespective of their L1 background. Research suggests that as EAs are non-salient, misusing them may not spark a tangible breakdown in communication. The current study attempted to investigate the short- and long-term effects of explicit instruction on the retention of EAs. Participants were university-level Farsi-speaking EFL learners from three intact groups, namely “processing instruction” (PI) as a deductive intervention, “consciousness-raising instruction” (CRI) as an explicit-inductive intervention, and a “control” group. The PI group received explicit training on the target rules and processing challenges represented by the EAs, coupled with structured input activities. In the second group, through a so-called PACE model as a subcategory of CRI, the focus was on co-constructing the rules. The treatments were followed by three posttests at different intervals. The within-groups analysis of results revealed that CRI had a rather short-term effect on the learners’ productive ability, whereas PI had a late-emerging impact on their receptive performance. Nevertheless, the analysis of between-groups differences indicated that neither of the experimental conditions outdid the control group during any of the posttest phases. The implications for pedagogy and future research are discussed.

This study investigated the separate and combined effects of processing instruction (PI), which focuses on input-based explicit rules, and syntactic priming (SP), which focuses on output-based implicit learning through repetition, on object relative clauses (ORCs) in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom in Japan. Participants comprised 71 Japanese EFL learners from a technical college, randomly assigned to four groups (PI, SP, PI+SP, and control). All groups undertook a pre-test, intervention session, immediate post-test, and delayed post-test. The three intervention groups received ORC instruction, whereas the control group did not. In each test, participants processed 24 sentences and answered comprehension questions. Accuracy and reading times were compared across groups and clause types. The findings demonstrated that instruction groups improved in both comprehension accuracy and reading speed after the intervention compared with control group, and these gains lasted for four weeks. However, no significant differences were observed among the three intervention groups. These findings highlighted that since the combination of PI and SP did not outperform the isolated approaches, teachers may choose either based on instructional feasibility.

Энэхүү судалгаагаар Японы Англи хэлний Гадаад хэл (EFL) ангид тодорхой дүрмүүдэд анхаарлаа хандуулдаг боловсруулалтын заавар (PI) болон давталтаар дамжин далд суралцахад анхаарлаа хандуулдаг синтаксик прайминг (SP)-ийн тусдаа болон хосолсон нөлөөллийг судалсан. Оролцогчид нь техникийн коллежийн 71 Японы EFL суралцагчдаас бүрдэж, санамсаргүй байдлаар дөрвөн бүлэгт (PI, SP, PI+SP, болон хяналтын бүлэг) хуваарилагдсан. Бүх бүлгүүд урьдчилсан шалгалт, интервенцийн хичээл, шууд дараах шалгалт, хойшлуулсан дараах шалгалтыг хийсэн. Гурван интервенцийн бүлэг ORC зааварчилгаа авсан бол хяналтын бүлэгт заагаагүй. Тест бүрт оролцогчид 24 өгүүлбэр боловсруулж, ойлголтын асуултанд хариулсан. Нарийвчлал болон унших хугацааг бүлгүүд болон өгүүлбэрийн төрлүүдээр харьцуулсан. Судалгааны үр дүнгээс харахад хяналтын бүлэгтэй харьцуулахад интервенцийн дараа ойлголтын нарийвчлал болон унших хурд хоёулаа сайжирсан бөгөөд эдгээр өсөлт дөрвөн долоо хоног үргэлжилсэн. Гэсэн хэдий ч гурван интервенцийн бүлгийн хооронд мэдэгдэхүйц ялгаа ажиглагдаагүй. Эдгээр үр дүнгээс харахад PI болон SP-ийн хослол нь тусгаарлагдсан аргуудаас давж гараагүй тул багш нар сургалтын хэрэгжих боломжид үндэслэн аль нэгийг нь сонгож болно гэдгийг онцолсон.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the characteristics of the processing instruction(PI), and discuss how PI has been applied in teaching and learning of Korean grammar. PI is a type of focus on form instruction, and it is predicated on a model of input processing theory. The goal of PI is to guide L2 learners to derive richer intake from input. So as to achieve this end, the teacher makes learners engage in structured input activities that push them away from the strategies they normally use to make form-meaning connections. And the input activities are made up of various tasks that are given to learners. It is known that Korean is differentiated in grammatical forms and structures, and they have very various meaning that is difficult in distinguishing them. So, PI is very useful model in teaching and learning Korean grammar. But we need to require some examinations in order to applicate PI in teaching and learning of Korean grammar. First, we are to think over the way how the input processing theory is applicable to Korean grammar. Because the input processing theory has been developed with Indo-European language for a basis. Second, it is necessary to select the appropriate grammatical forms, because PI is not useful for all of the forms and structures of Korean. Third, it is necessary to consider the problem that compose appropriate tasks for the learners. Finally, we have to pay attention to the shortage that PI is based on input. Therefore it is necessary to consider the output activities of learners. But a lot of problems are left, for example short lesson program, limited selection of forms, and intentional teaching model. So, we have to make up for weakness in forward research of PI in teaching and learning of Korean grammar.

본 연구는 형태 초점 교수법의 한 종류인 입력 처리 교수(Processing Instruction)를 한국 어 문법 수업에 활용하여 초급 학습자의 문법 성취도에 미치는 효과를 알아보는 데 목적이 있다. 입력 처리 교수는 목표 문법 항목과 입력을 효과적으로 처리하는 전략(strategy)을 명 시적(explicit)으로 설명하여 학습자들의 부적절한 전략을 수정하고 구조화된 입력 활동을 통 해 형태와 의미의 연결을 강화한다. 나아가 학습자들의 문법 정확성(accuracy) 및 유창성 (fluency)까지 동시에 꾀할 수 있는 장점을 지닌다. 따라서 이러한 특징을 활용하여 5주간 전 통적 문법 교수(Traditional Instruction)와 입력 처리 교수의 실제 수업 방법 비교를 통해 입력 처리 교수가 성취도에 미치는 긍정적인 효과를 도출해냈다. 특히, 하위권 학습자들에게 서 유의성을 검증한 것은 실제 교육 현장에 긍정적인 도움이 될 수 있음을 시사한다. 마지막 으로 사후 인터뷰를 통해 정의적 영역에의 긍정적인 부분도 확인할 수 있었다. 향후 연구에서 는 본 연구에서의 제언을 반영하여 입력 처리 교수를 기반으로 한 한국어 문법 교육 연구가 활발해지기를 바란다.

The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of input processing instruction, a type of focus on form, on grammar achievement of beginning learners in a Korean grammar course. Input processing instruction modifies inappropriate strategies of learners by explicitly explaining the strategy to process target grammar items and inputs effectively and processes inputs through structured input activities. Accordingly, it has the advantage of improving both grammar accuracy and fluency of learners. By comparing actual classes based on traditional grammar instruction and input processing instruction for five weeks, positive effects of input processing instruction on achievement were found. In particular, this study showed significant results in low-rank learners, implying that input processing instruction can have a positive influence on the education field. Finally, the post-interview also showed positive aspects of affective domain. Future studies should reflect the suggestions of this study and focus on Korean grammar education using input processing instruction.

본 연구는 그간 한국어교육에서 수행되어 온 입력 처리 교수에 대한 연구를 통시적인 관점에서 고찰하는 데 목적이 있다. 먼저 입력 처리 교수 모델의 원리와 원칙에 대한 고찰을 통해서 이 연구 분야에서 지켜져야 하는 문제들을 살피기 위하여 연구문제를 도출하였다. 연구문제를 바탕으로 기존에 수행되어 오고 온 11편의 연구 성과를 고찰하였다. 선행연구의 성과로는 시각적 입력 강화와 처리 교수가 학습자의 한국어 문법 습득에 유익하였다는 것을 일관되게 주장하고 있다. 반면에 이 분양의 향후 과제로는 첫째, 시각적 입력 강화와 처리 교수 분야 모두 목표문법의 양을 확대하여야 하고 둘째, 목표문법을 선택할 때 이론의 내용에 적합한 문법을 선택하여야 하며 셋째, 가장 효과적인 시각적 입력강화 방법이 무엇인지를 분석해내야 하며 넷째, 학습자에게 문법 난이도가 높은 항목이 무엇인지를 구체적으로 분석해 냄으로써 문법의 자질을 추출하여야 할 것이다.

In this article I review the prior studies about input processing instruction of Korean Language. I outline a model of input processing, then describe the nature of PI itself, and follow this with a description of research to date on PI in Korean Language Education. I also review research that offers evidence to the findings of my own and others’ research and argue that some of these studies can be considered the problem of research processing. I propose a few implications in the future studies. first, In this fields research have to increase the numbers of target grammar. Second, When researcher select target grammar, According to theoretical basis have to select. Third, try to know what the method of typological input is the most effective. Through analyzing the difficulties of grammar should infer to features of grammar

The Effects of Processing Instruction on the Acquisition of Past-tense Maker in Korean Kim, Chang-Goo Previous studies in second language acquisition show that the ‘input’ plays an important role for successful grammar learning. However, Korean language teachers tend to focus on the output practice rather than the input intakes to developmental system in today’s Korean class yet. The present study examines the relative effects of input-based instruction technique, named Processing Instruction(hereafter, PI) with output-based traditional instruction technique(hereafter, TI) on past-tense maker in Korean. Twenty three beginning Korean learners of Chinese were divided two groups(PI & TI), and received instruction on target item separately. The learners’ knowledge of target form was evaluated by comprehension tasks and production tasks. The results indicated that the leaners in both groups gained from instruction and retained the knowledge of target form after 2 weeks in production tasks. But there was not statistical difference between two groups. In the case of comprehension tasks, the PI group gained greater than TI group in posttest, but there was not statistical difference in delayed posttest. These results suggest that the Processing Instruction is more effective technique than traditional technique, especially at least on comprehension of past tense maker in Korean.

Processing instruction (PI) and skill-specificity may not be compatible with each other in SLA. Though VanPatten (2002a) has argued that PI was never intended to refer to comprehension versus production, PI and skill-specificity make opposite claims at least in terms of the usefulness of output practice. This paper discusses major arguments and empirical studies of each side and suggests following three directions to take for future research. First, further research on the effect of PI on various cross-linguistic structures and better operationalization of traditional instruction would help solve the problem. Second, both sides should differentiate two kinds of knowledge, declarative and procedural knowledge in Anderson's framework (1993) and do more empirical studies on procedural knowledge. Finally, both sides should take into consideration the auto-input function of output suggested in the literature

This study investigated the effectiveness of comprehension-based processing instruction (PI) and the production-oriented approach (POA) on Chinese L1 learners’ acquisition of complex structures in L2 English. Two groups of first-year college students (n = 94) participated in an intensive skill-integrated course for two months. They were randomly assigned to either a processing instruction or a POA class. Their recognition and production of six target forms (present/past perfect, temporal adverbial clauses, indicative/subjunctive conditionals, and oblique relative clauses) were assessed in a pre-, post-, and delayed-test design. Overall, the POA group made greater progress than the PI group in both receptive and productive tasks, suggesting that POA can be a viable instructional strategy to facilitate L2 learners’ acquisition of complex grammatical features. POA was also found to be effective in fostering learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in L2 production. However, it did not induce them to apply those structures in spontaneous production contexts. PI was not as effective as POA in improving the students’ grammatical accuracy, while it nevertheless enhanced their intake of the target forms to a considerable degree.

The goal of this study is to explore an effective grammar teaching method by investigating the effects of two form-focused instruction techniques, i.e., input processing (IP) instruction and output-enriched consciousness-raising (CR) instruction. Specifically, this study examines which one of these techniques promotes Korean students’ acquisition of English simple past and present perfect. The participants in this study are 52 university students in their first year. The students first took a written pretest and received grammar instruction in pairs or groups, using different techniques: one group with IP instructional methods, and the other with CR instruction. Each treatment was offered to the subjects for two weeks. One week after the treatment, both groups underwent a first written posttest. The findings showed that both instruction techniques were similarly effective in comprehending and producing the target forms in the posttest. Concerning the difficulty of forms, both groups did not have a significant difference in learning both difficult and easy forms. After the first posttest, the learners did not receive any treatment, but only took regular lessons of English reading. In a second delayed posttest, both groups maintained the effects of each instruction. The results of this study indicate that in an EFL context of Korean classrooms where most students are interlanguage speakers, instructing through focus on form in groups or pairs must be effective for learners to have more communicative competence and to develop accurate English grammar at the same time.

This study provides a qualitative analysis of the production data to discover students learning process of input processing instruction and output-enriched consciousness-raising instruction on the target forms: the English present perfect and past simple tenses. The primary goal of this study is to analyze the learners’ errors on the target forms and to find out their learning processes according to rule difficulty and by levels. The participants of this study are 52 Korean students from a University. The students first took a pretest and received each instruction, and then they took a posttest. A delayed posttest was then administered to the students. The study results did not reveal a difference between the instructional types. The results showed that the most frequent errors of both the target forms were misusing the tenses, which is replacing the English past simple tense for different tenses, “misusing the root verbs”, and “inserting ‘be’”. Specifically, for English present perfect tense, many learners show their lack of knowledge of the past participle form adjoining the auxiliary “have”. Concerning the learners’ level, the low-level learners acquired its meaning first, and then they acquired the form. In contrast, for high-level learners, distinguishing meanings were more difficult than making correct forms for the target forms.

There has been notable increase as a result of the English-medium instruction rapidly expanding in response to higher education globalization trends. The questionof whether students can learn topic knowledge when it is taught in a language inwhich they are not proficient is a crucial one in English-medium instruction research. Few studies have looked into the actual learning processes involved, despite the fact that prior research has mostly concentrated on how English-medium instruction affects measurable learning outcomes. The purpose of this study is to find out how much content knowledge is processed during English-medium instruction lectures by students using deep-level methods, i.e., critical thought, detailed information, and structure. Furthermore, the study investigates the potential correlation between the implementation of such strategies and the motivating beliefs and English listening proficiency of students. Using a mixed-methods approach, questionnaire responses and semi-structured interviews from 60 students in Korea were gathered. The results emphasize that students' self efficacy and intrinsic learning goals are more important indicators of their use of deep processing strategies than is their English listening competency. This study also offers lecturers and program designers insightful suggestions for supporting meaningful subject learning in English-medium instruction contexts.

This study investigated longitudinal effects of explicit and implicit instructional approaches on Korean university students’ online processing of English phrasal verb constructions in both active and passive forms. Image-based eye-tracking methods were used to examine cognitive processes in acquisition of English phrasal verb constructions. Participants were randomly assigned to an explicit-instruction group, or an implicit-instruction group. The explicit-instruction group received direct grammatical teaching, while the implicit-instruction group completed contextualized tasks without overt grammar explanations. After 12 weeks, the implicit-instruction group showed significantly greater gains in correctly processing phrasal verbs, evidenced by higher gaze proportions on corresponding images in posttest assessments. Their gaze patterns also became more focused and systematic, suggesting deeper analytical processing in a context-rich environment. In contrast, the explicit-instruction group displayed comparatively modest gains. These findings support Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories favoring implicit instruction for more durable language processing skills and underscore the pedagogical value of context-rich grammar instruction for acquiring phrasal verbs.

This study investigated the effects of explicit and implicit instruction on Korean university students' online processing of English transitive verb constructions in active and passive forms. Using eye-tracking methods, we explored cognitive processes in second language acquisition within an EFL context with limited authentic exposure. Participants were divided into two groups: one received explicit grammar instruction emphasizing direct teaching of grammatical rules, while the other experienced implicit instruction without focused grammar teaching. After 12 weeks, the explicit instruction group showed and retained significant improvements in processing, evidenced by increased gaze proportions on target images during the posttest. These learners demonstrated more focused and systematic gaze patterns, indicating deeper analytical processing due to the structured, rule-based instruction they received. In contrast, the implicit instruction group showed less pronounced improvements. These findings support cognitive theories suggesting that adult learners benefit from explicit, formfocused instruction due to their advanced metacognitive abilities. The study contributes to SLA research by confirming the efficacy of explicit grammar instruction, particularly in EFL settings like Korea, where classroom instruction is likely the only primary source of language exposure.

본 논문은 SIFT(Scale Invariant Feature Transform)알고리즘의 실시간처리 응용프로그램 작성기법을 기술하고 있는데, 단일 프로세서에서 병렬처리 기능을 지원하도록 설계된 SSE 명령어 집합을 사용하여 가우시안 convolution을 구현하고 있다. SIFT알고리즘의 Scale-space를 생성하는 과정에 수행되는 가우시안 Convolution은 연산시간이 과도하게 요구된다.[1] 2D의 가우시안 필터가 영상을 구성하는 모든 셀과 1:1로 연산을 수행하므로 이 연산의 소요시간은 영상의 가로, 세로 길이 그리고 필터의 크기에 비례하여 결정된다. 이 논문에서 제안하는 방법은 연산을 위해 CPU 내부로 한번 읽어 들인 픽셀자료에 대해 가능한 모든 연산을 SSE 명령어 집합을 사용하여 수행함으로써 병렬 연산에 의한 연산시간 절감과 메모리 접근 최소화를 통한 입출력시간 절감을 통해 전체 연산시간을 단축 하였다.

This paper aims to investigate the acquisition status of Korean L2 learners on English wh-question and relative clauses, and to evaluate the effectiveness of Input Processing Instruction (PI) on the acquisition of target language grammar rules. For this purpose, 50 middle school students of 3rd year were divided into two groups, and PI lessons were offered to 25 students of the experiment group in four 20-minutes over two weeks. The findings are as follows. First, Korean students had more difficulty in understanding the that-trace filter in complement clauses with object gaps, and in differentiating relative clauses from complement ones. Second, there was considerable confusion in Complex Noun Phrase Constraints (CNPC) and gap interpretation. Third, the PI group showed higher effects than the control group in learning movement constraints on English wh-questions and relative clauses. Eventually, this experimental study suggests initial evidence for the advantages of PI lessons in learning various grammar types and constraints.

This paper explores how Korean learners acquire English wh-questions and which syntactic rules are involved, and whether Input Processing Instruction (PI) can facilitate Korean students' acquisition of English wh-questions. The acquisition patterns of English wh-questions by 50 middle school students were measured through Grammaticality Judgement Test (GJT), and PI lessons were given to 25 out of the 50 students in four 15-minutes for two weeks. The major findings of this experimental study are as follows: (1) Korean middle school students preferred subject wh-questions over object ones both in simple and embedded clauses, and sentence complexity such as embedding depth and preposition stranding greatly influenced their judgements. (2) PI was effective in that students improved significantly in GJT after short-term lessons. This study concludes that Korean middle school students have not yet fully acquired syntactic properties of English wh-questions and thus PI can benefit L2 learners in the early stage of interlanguage development.

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이 연구의 목적은 처리 교수가 학습자의 문장 의미 이해에 얼마나 유익한지를 조사하는 데 있다. 어떤 연구에서는 처리 교수의 효과가 의미 중심 출력 교수보다 우월하였던 반면에, 또 다른 연구에서는 의미 중심 출력 교수의 효과가 처리 교수의 교수 처치보다 우월한 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 이 연구에서는 기존 연구 결과의 혼돈스러웠던 점을 명확하게 구분하고자 했다. 결과적으로, 이 연구에서는 문장 해석 능력 측면에서 처리 교수의 효과가 의미 중심 출력 교수보다 우월하게 나타났는데 아마도 그 원인은 구조화된 입력에 처리 교수 집단이 노출되었기 때문일 것이다. 이 연구에서는 처리 교수, 의미 중심 출력 교수, 의미 중심 연습 교수의 처치를 받은 집단의 관형사형 어미 습득을 문장 해석 과제 수행을 통하여 보고자 하였다. 실험 집단은 한국어 중급 학습자 90명을 세 그룹(처리 교수 집단, 의미 중심 출력 교수 집단, 의미 중심 연습 교수 집단)으로 배정하였다. 실험은 총 4번에 걸쳐서 이루어졌는데 사전 시험, 사후 1,2,3 시험을 보도록 설계하였다. 사후 1 시험은 교수 처치 후에 바로 이루어졌으며 사후 2 시험은 2주 후에 실시되었으면 사후 3 시험은 한 달이 지난 뒤에 수행하였다. 문장 이해 과제의 연구 결과에서 처리 교수가 의미 중심 출력 교수와 의미 중심 연습 교수에 비하여 우월하였다.

Research that the effects of processing (PI)?instruction to meaning based output instruction(MOI) on learners' interpretation?abilities has produced conflicting results. In some studies, PI is superior to MOI: in others. MOI is equally effective as PI. The present study examines whether MOI yields similar gains as PI due to incidental exposure to structured input. This study compared the effects of PI, MOI, and TI on the acquisition of Korean unconjugation adjective endings. Intermediate learners of Korean(N=90) were assigned to one of three groups: PI, MOI, or TI. Learning was measured sentence level interpretation and production tests administered in a pretest/posttest design(immediate, two week later, and one month later). On the interpretation task, PI was superior to MOI, TI.

청각장애 학생은 구어를 통해 문법 형태에 관한 정보를 받아들이는데 어려움이 있고, 문자언어의 습득과 사용이 지체되기에 청각장애 학생의 문법 수준은 또래의 건청학생에 비해 낮은 편이다. 본 연구에서는 수화를 사용하는 고등부 청각장애 학생을 대상으로 문법 형태 단서에 초점을 두어 처리하도록 요구하는 입력중심교수, 정확한 문법표현을 강조한 산출중심교수, 입력중심과 산출중심 활동을 결합한 입력산출혼합교수를 실시하여 이들 교수방법 중 어떤 방법이 청각장애 학생의 문법적 이해와 표현 능력 향상에 효과적인지 알아보았다. 특히 본 연구에서는 청각장애 학생들이 지속적으로 어려움을 보이는 사동과 피동의 문법적 능력을 향상시키는데 중점을 두었으며, 연구절차는 사전검사와 중재, 사후검사, 유지검사 순으로 진행되었다. 연구 결과, 사동문과 피동문의 이해과제에서는 입력중심교수집단과 입력산출혼합교수집단이 산출중심교수집단보다 사후와 유지검사에서 더 높은 점수를 받았으며, 이는 통계적으로 유의미하였다. 사동문과 피동문의 표현과제에서는 입력산출혼합교수집단과 산출중심교수집단이 사후와 유지검사에서 더 높은 점수를 받았지만, 교수방법에 따른 차이는 통계적으로 유의미하지 않았다. 이러한 결과를 토대로 선언적 지식이 완전히 갖추어지지 않은 청각장애학생들에게 어떠한 교수법을 제공하는 것이 효과적인지 논의하였다.

The students with hearing impairment are hard to perceive linguistic forms. When they accept oral input or written input, they prefer processing content words to function words for semantic information. The purpose of the present study was to compare the relative effects of input processing instruction with two other types of grammar instruction (output-based instruction, combined instruction) on learning the receptive and productive grammatical knowledge. The input processing group received explicit explanation focused on grammar cues, and structured input activities. The output-based instruction involved presenting deaf students with explanations concerning the form and gave them practices for making sentences. The combined instruction group received all activities that contained explicit explanation, structured input practices, and output-based practices. The results were as follows. Firstly, for the post and delay test, the mean scores of the input processing group and combined group were significantly different from those of output-based group in the passive and causative form comprehension task. Secondly, for the post and delay test, output-based instruction group and combined instruction group achieved higher scores than input processing group, but the differences among three groups were not statistically significant in the passive/causative form production task. Therefore, these results indicated that input processing instruction should precede output-based practices for students with hearing impairment that had little declarative knowledge.

In this article, we address the issue of what teaching method is effective for accelerating the acquisition of kattadesu, a polite past-tense form of the i-adjectives in Japanese. To this end, we explore whether the teaching method based on Processing Instruction, proposed by the SLA researcher, VanPatten is more effective than the standard production-centered method. We provided the Processing-Instruction teaching and the production-centered teaching for the kattadesu-expressions in introductory classes on Japanese at a university in order to see whether the two teaching methods help the learners to improve their exam scores in terms of both comprehension and production and also which method is more effective. 64 university students were involved in this experiment, and the result indicates that as a whole, the Processing-Instruction teaching outperforms the output-centred teaching. It is thus suggested that the Processing-Instruction teaching method is effective for reducing the cases where desita is mistakenly used in place of kattadesu, the use of kattadesu is over-generalised, or the expression is wrongly used.