Earticle

앵글로-색슨 시기의 여성 성인들에 대한 성인전기가 12세기에 집필되었다. 당시에 앵글로-색슨 여성 성인전기를 기록하는 것은 다양한 이유에 기인했다. 일반적인 이유로는 노르만이 정복한 후에도 앵글로-색슨 여성 성인을 숭배하는 교회와 수녀원이 정착되어 있었고, 노르만의 군주는 정치적 이유로 노르만의 신 앙적 정통성을 강조할 필요성이 있었다. 그리고 일반적인 이유가 아닌 오시드를 수호성인으로하는 개별 수녀원의 필요성에 기인한 이유가 있다. 오시드를 수호 성인으로 하는 개별 수녀회의 입장에서는 개별수녀원의 재산을 몰수하고자 하 는 감독으로부터 수녀원의 재산과 토지를 보호해야했다. 이러한 분위기 속에서 오시드 성녀를 숭배하는 수녀원은 수녀원의 토지와 재산이 전적으로 오시드 성 녀의 소유이며 궁극적으로 수녀원의 재산임을 인정받아야 했다. 당시의 시대적 상황 속에서 전혀 유명하지 않았던 오시드의 성인전기는 집필되었다. 이러한 목 적과 더불어 오시드 성인전기에는 여성 종교인으로서 자신의 정체성을 결정하 고 실행해가는 성녀의 모습이 자세하게 묘사되어 있다. 가족에 의해서 결정된 혼인을 해야만 하는 사회적 인습을 피해갈 수 없었던 오시드는 결혼을 하지만 동시에 수녀에게 요구되는 순결을 지켜야 했다. 결혼한 여성이 남편의 허락 없 이 수녀가 된다는 것은 교회의 권위나 인습에서 절대 허락될 수 없었다. 오시드 는 교회의 권위나 인습이 허락하지 않았지만 스스로 종교인으로서의 자신의 정 체성을 완성하였다. 그녀는 자신이 결정한 종교인으로서의 삶을 실천하기 위하 여 다양한 전략을 세웠고, 때론 당시의 시대적 상황에서 불합리한 부분도 존재 했다. 이러한 전략의 결과로 남편은 그녀의 결정을 수동적이기는 하지만 허락하 고 후원하였다. 이러한 그녀의 행위는 당시의 사회적 인습이나 종교적 권위에 대한 저항이기도 하였다. 그리고 이러한 이야기는 오시드만이 아니라 다른 성인 들에게도 나타난다. 그리고 이러한 여성 성인전기가 당시 귀족여성들의 독서 그룹에서 읽힌 것을 감안한다면, 이미 여성의 주체성 또는 인권에 대한 인식이 어느 정도 퍼져있었다고 볼 수 있다.

The Hagiographies of Anglo-Saxon female saints were written in the Norman period. At that time, Anglo-Saxon hagiographies were written often. The tradition of worshiping Anglo-Saxon female saints in the Norman period were existed. The hagiography of St. Osith was edited in order to confiscate the property of individual convents in the 12th century. Hagiography of Osith, who was not famous at all, was used for this purpose, but at the same time, her self determination as a religious identity was described in detail. Unable to circumvent the social convention of marriage determined by the family, Osith married but at the same time kept the purity required of a nun. It was never allowed in church authority or convention that a married woman become a nun without her husband's permission. She did not get the permission of the church's authority or convention but established her own identity as a religious woman. In the hagiography, her decision was understood to be dignity from God. And her husband, though passive in her decision, allowed and supported her. Her decision as a religious person is completed through her martyrdom. Her actions were also a resistance to social conventions and religious authority at the time. And same or similar stories were seen not only in the Osith but also in other female saints’ hagiography. And considering that these women's hagiographies were read in the reading circles of noble women at the time, it could be said that there was already some recognition of women’s human rights. This perception had already existed in the 12th century.

Journalists play an important role in the construction of the image of religion in the media. In Israel the secular-religious divide has resulted in the media being seen as contributing to the perceived negative image which religious communities, in particular the Haredi ultra-Orthodox, enjoy. This paper seeks to throw light upon Israeli journalists’ religious beliefs and observance of religious customs. Given that journalists’ work values emphasise freedom of the media and the right to know it is instructive to throw light on how journalists negotiate their religiousity. This is important in understanding how religion is covered in Israel. Does a perceived anti-religious bias in the Israeli media reflect the religious identity of Israeli journalists?or not? But a poll by this author of 260 Israeli journalists about Jewish religious identity while confirming that Israeli journalists favor the separation of synagogue and state found there was little or no difference between the positions of Israeli Jewish journalists and that of the broader Israeli Jewish population on existential questions like belief in God. Nor were there any significant differences regarding religious activity like observance of religious holidays or Jewish life cycle events between the journalistic community and the rest of the Israeli Jewish population.

중세후기 성인들의 신체적 손상과 장애는 성인의 종교적 정체성을 확립하는데 결정적 역할을 하였다. 성인의 장애와 신체적 손상은 태생적인 경우와 후천적인 사고 등의 다양한 원인에서 기인하였다. 신체적 손상을 통한 장애를 가장 광범위하게 다루는 중세 자료는 성인전기 (hagiography)이다. 성인전기는 성인의 생애와 생전과 사후의 기적의 내용을 포함한다. 성인전기의 기적의 90%는 치료에 대한 내용이다. 그리고 성인전기에는 성인들의 고난의 내용을 담은 삶에 대한 기록을 살펴볼 수 있다. 성인전기를 통해서보면 성인들이 의도적으로 예수의 고난에 참여한다는 의미로 신체적 장애를 경험하기를 간절하게 원하여 기도하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 그리고 프란체스코와 같은 경우는 심각한 시각장애를 경험하지만 치료를 거부하고 시각장애를 선택하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 또는 로욜라와 같은 몇 성인들의 경우는 군인으로 전쟁에서 심각한 손상을 입고 장애로 삶을 살아가는데 이러한 과정에서 자신들의 종교적인 정체성을 찾는 것을 볼 수 있다. 그리고 태생적으로 심각한 장애를 가지고 태어난 성인들의 경우 (대부분의 성인들은 귀족출신임) 가족으로부터 버림을 받지만, 장애를 통해서 종교적인 정체성을 확립하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 중세에는 장애를 죄의 결과로 이해하였다는 것이 상식적인 수준에서 받아들여지지만, 실제로 11세기 이후의 작품이나 성인전기에서는 장애를 죄의 결과로 이해하는 것을 거의 찾아 볼 수 없었다. 그뿐 아니라 성인들은 예수의 수난에 동참하기를 원하는 가장 이상적인 것으로 신체적 손상이나 장애를 경험하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 장애는 중세 성인들에게 있어서 종교인이 추구해야하는 가장 이상화된 삶의 형태로 받아들여졌다.

This research explores the role of the saint’s impaired experience in forming their religious identities during the late medieval period. Impairments of saints were either self‐inflicted or caused by an accident. For achieving the goal of this research, the hagiographies and church documents will be analyzed. Also this research focuses on how the saints of the late medieval period viewed disability. In the Middle Ages, the cult of saints was quintessentially a public phenomenon. Analyzing hagiographies must be done with caution because the authors or compilers were not interested in fact, but had other propagandistic intentions to glorify the saints. However, hagiography provides a window into medieval religious ideals and into the lives of ordinary people. Through the author or compilers’ views of hagiography, we can examine how medieval people believed the impairment experience of saints differed from that of ordinary people. Saints’ impaired narratives do not always infer positive value to disability. For example, according to Margaret and Ambrose the impaired and the disabled are isolated by their parents; however religious institution recognized their spiritual and intellectual value. The writers of the biography downplay the value of physical health in favor of spiritual health. Saints had compensated for their physical and mental impairment by receiving the inner vision. The church leaders emphasize their intellectual and spiritual excellence. Although the biographers distorted their life styles to portray ideal devoutness, we notice that the disability included partially positive connotation during the late medieval era. As least the saints’ impairment experience illuminate the different view of wholeness in this world. In this research, I argue that disability did always not have a negative connotation although several modern scholars have criticized the medieval attitudes to the disabled assuming the disabled were mistreated in the Medieval Age.

Through in-depth anthropological fieldwork at Sanchuan（三川） Tu ethnic region of Minhe(民和) Tu and Hui autonomous county, Qinghai Province, this paper investigates and analyzes the cultural diversity and pluralistic religions in history and reality. It is found that ethnic distribution is complex, ethnic identity and relations is diverse in this area, comprehensively reflected in the culture, customs, religious genres, festivals and ceremonial symbols and many other aspects of the extremely rich and diverse situation. Tu people live in compact community; Tibetan, Hui and Han live in a mixed community. The relationship between ethnic groups is more harmonious and symbiotic. Apart from Buddhism (Zen), Tibetan Buddhism and Islam, it also has multi-god faith in folk beliefs, as a proof as the diversity in religious beliefs. This study found that Sanchuan Tu ethnic region is located in the hub of the Gansu-Qinghai ethnic corridor, the migration of multi-ethnic groups, religious proliferation and the frequent and frequent contacts between multi-ethnic groups in the history, formed the pattern of cultural diversity and religious identity unique to the region.

이 글은 동학의 초기 활동이 이루어진 경북 지역을 중심으로 창교주 최제우의 종교경험으로부터 ``교단 종교``로서의 동학의 정체성이 형성 되는 과정을 살펴봄으로써 동학의 종교사적 위상과 의미를 짚어보고자 하였다. 이를 위해 창교주 최제우의 종교경험으로부터 포교를 준비 하면서 종교로서의 자의식을 갖추어 나가는 과정, 동학의 기본적인 교리, 의례, 조직의 틀이 체계화되는 과정을 검토하였다. 다음으로 세습교주 최시형을 중심으로 교단 활동의 범위가 확산되면서 창교주의 종교경험이 창조적으로 해석, 적용되는 과정을 교리, 의례, 조직의 ``합리화``라는 관점에서 살펴보았다. 이 시기는 동학이 민중 계층으로 널리 확산되면서 이를 토대로 본격적인 제도종교로의 발전이 이루어 졌던 시기이다. 마지막으로 이러한 분석을 바탕으로 동학운동의 종교 사적 위상과 의미를 해명해 보았다. 사적 위상과 의미를 해명해 보았다. 동학은 유교와 민간신앙이 공존하고 있던 조선후기의 종교사 영역에서 신종교로 성립한 종교적 혁신운동이었다. 즉 동학이라고 하는 신종교는 조선시대 전 시기에 걸쳐 종교사 영역을 전반적으로 지배하고 있던 체제종교였던 유교가 그 내적 혁신의 역동성을 상실함으로써 야기된 세계관 차원에서의 공백을, 민간신앙이 지니고 있던 개벽지향적인 운수관에 기초해서 혁신해낸 것이었다. 동학은 창도와 포덕 초기부터 줄곧 관의 지목과 탄압에 직면하였기 때문에 교조신원과 동학 금령의 해제를 통해서 신앙, 포덕의 합법성을 쟁취하는 문제는 운동의 전개과정에서 중심적인 혁신의 과제였다. 그래서 이러한 외부적 강제에 대처하는 동학 교단의 대응 방식과 그 내용에 대한 교리적 정당화가 내적 혁신의 중심축을 이루고 있었다. 동학은 이와 같은 내적 혁신의 과정을 통해서 시천주, 무극대도, 후천개벽을 핵심으로 하는 교리체계를 동학 교단이 처하고 있던 구체적인 상황과 신앙인 집단의 요구에 기초하여 동학 교단의 종교적 전망과 실천에 적용하고, 의미를 부여해내는 능동적인 해석과 적용의 과정을 수행하였다.

This thesis aims to elucidate the position of Donghak(東學), and its implication in the history of korean religions by concentrating on its development from the religious experience of the its founder to its formation into a religious organization. The founder of Donghak, Su-un(水雲) formed its sacred books, its rituals and organization and the second leader, Haewol(海月), spread the message of its doctrine to the people so that Donghak developed into an institutionalized religion. Donghak was one of the new religions that originated in Korea and formed during the Chosun Dynasty when Confucianism and other folk religions coexisted. The belief system of Donghak was based on innovation-oriented worldview of folk religions of that time. Donghak was able to fill the gap in the world-view that arose from the lack of inner innovative dynamics in Chosun Confucianism. As Donghak, from the beginning, was suppressed by the state, the problem of legitimacy was a central innovative task during its formative years. Therefore, both its reaction against this outer suppression and its doctrinal justification was the source of its inner innovations. Its main hermeneutical innovations were centered on Sicheonju(侍天主), Mugeukdaedo(无極大道), Hucheongaebyuk(後天開闢), which had to be grounded on the concrete situations of that time and on the needs of the believers. Such inner innovations of interpretation and application resulted in a unique but syncretic philosophy and doctrine of Donghak.

In my article titled “Nationalism of William B. Yeats and Seamus Heaney in their early poetry: mythic nationalism and realistic national consciousness” which was published in The Journal of English Language & Literature Vol. 45 No. 3, I analyzed three among four factors of nationalism (implicated) in the two poets’ early poetry, that is, ethnicity, language, territory. This article deals with one remaining factor of nationalism, religion, in their middle poetry. Religion is so powerful an influence in Ireland that Irish nationalism can be considered Irish Catholic Nationalism. The political, religious, and economic conflicts between Anglo-Irish Protestants and Catholic Irish made Ireland divided into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, after Ireland was liberated from British imperialism in 1922. The native Irish who had lost even their mother tongue, Gaelic during the colonial period of almost 800 years ruled by the British Empire sought their national identity in Catholicism and made the religious oppression of Britain their centripetal force. To Yeats, religion was not a dogmatic faith of institutionalized religion but a field in which his imagination of the supernatural is allowed full play to go beyond the ephemeral real world to the eternal spiritual world. He set the Irish religious identity on Irish countrymen’s native faith in faerie, ghost, eternity of soul, and the world of magic expressed in Irish legends, folklore, myths, and oral traditions. He satisfied his hunger for the ultimate truth of universe with the Irish ancient faith in the mystical world of the everlasting soul and the visionary as well as various kinds of mysticism in the East and the West. The mystical religious identity of the native Irish emphasized by him anticipated the continuous collisions among him, the Catholic pulpit and Irish nationalists. His romantic belief in a heroic spiritual Ireland materialized his Irish Literary Movement and his idealized Anglo-Irish Ascendancy culture was far from the political nationalism of the middle class of Ireland, the political class of the people democracy. Seamus Heaney has also suffered from the conflict between his cultural․ political ideals which are fundamentally Ireland-centered and the political reality of the violent IRA (Irish Republican Army) which kills even civilians at random for the cause of nationalism. To Heaney the religious faith was a recognition of the deep value of the religious ritual and the Catholic ritual has been internalized in his feminine poetic sensibility of patience, humility, duty, discipline, guiltiness, grace, wonder, and the ritual supplication. The Irish religious identity he put an emphasis on was not the visionary mystic one of Yeats but the real one which has been internalized in the minds of the native Catholic Irish as “self-afflicting compulsions” and spiritual paralysis, especially in terms of political martyrdom complex in IRA and historical defeatism of Catholic priests in Northern Ireland. Both Heaney and Yeats opposed violence of nationalism and sought their ideal one. Religion has had a devastating influence on the two tribal struggle in Ireland so that the two poets refused the established Christianity and tried to enhance Irish republican nationalism to the genuine nationalism allowing the peaceful co-existence of the two races living in Ireland. Heaney demythodized Yeats’s myth of the political martyrdom and denied the religious halo of Irish nationalism as well as the mythodized force in the history of the Northern Europe. His quest of democratic co-existence of plural culture in Ulster seems realistic and idealistic solution of the Troubles in Northern Ireland.

청소년들의 건강한 자아정체성 형성을 목적으로 하는 “(가제) SAVE ME, LOVE ME” 라는 심리 기능성게임 시나리오의 주제는 조건 없는 사랑(무조건적인 사랑)을 자원으로 딜레마들을 해결하는 과정에 의한 내부적 승인 획득이다. 1인칭 시점 액션게임으로 청소년의 일상적인 삶의 딜레마를 다루는 이 게임의 특징은 청소년들이 받는 여러 심리적 스트레스를 치료하기 위해 종교 지혜 내러티브 중 기독교 예수의 ‘돌아온 탕자’ 비유의 모티브를 사용한 것이다. 게임의 기획 의도는 다양한 스테이지 별로 청소년들의 건강한 자아정체성을 해치는 위협요인들의 상징을 배치, 여러 캐릭터가 제공하는 이야기들이나 몬스터를 파괴하는 등의 액션을 통해 긍정적인 자아상 확립을 돕는 것이다. 게임의 장르는 모바일 게임을, 게임 형식으로는 다양한 형식의 인터랙션이 가능한 액션 게임을 채택하였다.

The main goal of psychological serious game, which is called “SAVE ME, LOVE ME” made on the purpose of sound identity for teenagers is to reach inner awareness through the process of dilemma problem solving by the support of unconditional love. This action game is about how to deal with routine dilemma through the first person narration that teenagers are faced to. Its features are on the metaphorical use of ‘A Prodigal Son’ in the Bible, one of religious wisdom narratives to heal the psychological stresses which teenagers suffer from. This game is aimed at helping teenagers to build a positive and solid sense of self by fighting against growing threatens to teenager’s solid sense of self, by defeating monsters, and by listening to the various stories which game characters tell.

본 연구는 중국 종교설화의 역사적 전개사에 나타난 여성상을 검토하 여 한국 종교설화에 나타난 그것과과 비교해 봄으로써 한국과 차별화 되는 중국 여성관의 정체성을 규명해 보았다. 일반적으로 한·중의 여성 상은 19세기 이후의 페미니즘 운동의 결과 서구에서 정착된 주체적·독립 적 여성상에 대비되는 오리엔탈적 여성상의 공통 분모 속에 묶여 있는 것으로 인식되어 왔지만, 본 연구의 결과 한·중의 여성상은 유교·불교의 세례 속에서 원래의 모습으로부터 변동되었다는 공통점만큼이나 큰 차이점이 존재한다는 사실을 확인하게 되었다. 고대의 중국 불교설화에는 사회주의 혁명에 의해 타파 대상이 되었던 유교적 여성상과는 전혀 다른 여성적 이미지가 확인되는데, 이러한 비 (非) 유교적 여성상은 근대 이행기 중국 종교설화 속까지 지속적으로 나 타나는 현상을 보여준다. 이처럼 근대 이행기 중국 종교설화까지 이어 지는 고대 중국 불교설화의 여성상은 문화혁명을 기점으로 형성된 것으 로 여겨지고 있는 현대 중국의 여성이미지와 상통하는 지점이 있다. 중국의 경우와 반대로 한국 종교설화에서 확인되는 여성상은 종속성· 수동성·객체성·대상성이 상대적으로 강하게 나타난다. 지금까지 선행연구사에서 주도적·영웅적이라고 평가되어온 무속설화의 여성상마저도 텍스트의 궁극적인 종결방식과 전개방식을 중국 종교설화의 그것과 비교 해 보면 가부장제의 존속과 유지를 위한 종속적인 대상성이 강화 되어 있다는 차이가 확인된다. 이러한 한국설화 속 여성상은 유교이데올로기가 전면적으로 내면화 된 결과물이 된다고 할 수 있겠다.

This study investigated the chinese woman's identity differentiated to the korean woman’s identity by comparing the woman image in the historical development of the chinese religious folktale with the woman image in the historical development of the korean religious folktale. Generally, the woman image of Korea and China has been recognized as being tied up in the common denominator on the oriental woman image contrasted with independent woman image established in the west since the 19th century as the result of the feminist movement. On the other hand, this study has come to check the fact that there exists difference as big as the common thing which was changed from its original shape in the baptism of Buddhism and Confucianism. In the ancient religious folklore of China, the confucian woman image completely different from the confucian woman image to be target to be overthrown by the socialist revolution is confirmed. This anti-confucian woman image in the ancient Buddhist folklore of China has something in common with the modern chinese woman image formed after the Cultural Revolution. In this point, it can be that the woman image in the ancient religious folklore of China is a kind of the archetypical image of the modern chinese woman image. On the contrary with China, the woman image in the korean religious folktale relatively strongly has the dependency, the passivity, and the objectivity. So far, in even the korean woman image of shamanistic folktale that has been assessed leading and heroic in the existing study, the subordinate objectivity are strengthened relatively for the continuation and maintenance of the patriarchal system. It can be said that this woman image of the korean religious fokltale is results that the confucian ideology has been internalized beyond religion.

Not only during Biblical times but also after the fall of Jerusalem by the Roman Empire, Israelites wandered about the world away from their homeland for an exceptionally long period of time. They were, however, able to maintain their identity and integrity as the people of God. We need to inquire about the main factors while raising the question, “what would be the main factors of their ability to maintain their identity and integrity after long exile?”. This study endeavors to search for such factors and their meaning in terms of theology, psychology, and education. This study employs interdisciplinary methodology that utilizes findings and insights gleaned from biblical studies, systematic theology, and psychology. This sort of interdisciplinary study could greatly help our investigation toward finding ample implications for Christian education. Having all these in mind, this study explores meanings of the image of God and covenant as two main factors as an attempt to provide a way in which modern and postmodern society may find an alternative. After some exploration, several implications are to be drawn from what are to be discussed in the main body of this endeavor. In relation with Christian education they may show a direction toward which next generation can grow and mature. This kind of Christian education can be called intergenerational Christian education or transgenerational Christian education.

이질성을 지닌 교수법은 교실에서 이질성을 신중하게 고려하고, 다양성의 교수법을 촉진한다. 그리고 타자성에 대한 인상이 각인된다. 어 떠한 점에 있어서 그러한 이질성과 다양성은 중요한 쟁점을 발생시킬 수 있다. 여기에서 성에 대한 쟁점은 자연스러운 독특성을 전가시키게 된다. 그리고 상징적으로 피부색의 차이를 규범적으로 고양하게 된다. 그러한 특성은 직설적인 쟁점에서 명백하다. 개개인의 차이를 인정하기 위해서, 그들을 존중하기 위해서, 정의의 다양성을 실현하기 위해서, 각자의 차이는 명백하게 인정되어야 한다. 실제로 소녀는 인형에, 소년은 기술에 관심이 있다. 이러한 사례를 해석하는 것은 초감각적으로 강조되고 이념적인 색체를 가지게 된다. 그러나 배후에서 이질성은 인종 의 영역에서 분명히 가시적인 영역이 되어야 한다.

A heterogeneity-capable pedagogy wants to take the heterogeneity in the classroom seriously and develop a pedagogy of diversity. And yet a strange impression remains. Something is deeply problematic. Here one works with the imputation that there are natural distinctions between the sexes, which are then symbolically reinforced and normatively charged by the differentiated assignment of colors. This makes the indicated problem clear. In order to recognize individuals, to honor them, to bring justice to them, they must be identified beforehand. A real girl plays with pink dolls, a real boy is interested in technology. The interpretation of these examples may be considered hypersensitive, perhaps exaggerated or even ideologized. The mechanism in the background in dealing with heterogeneity, however, becomes blatantly visible when we play it out in the field of ethnicity.

This paper examines the religious reforms launched by Morocco in the aftermath of the suicide bombings of Casablanca in May 16, 2003, which aims to foster a national religious identity capable of countering the increasing intrusion of extremism. This religious identity focuses on promoting the Maliki rite ‘madhab’, Ash’ari theology, and Sufism against the growing peril of Jihadi and the rising threat of fundamentalist groups such as al-Qaeda and ISIL. The main research question of this paper is to what extent promoting a national religious identity was successful in combatting internal terrorism menace in post 2003’s attacks? This paper argues that Morocco has successfully prevented the occurrence of any major terrorist attack similar to the suicide bombings of 2003, through promoting and enforcing a national religious identity. This paper will test the success of the religious identity in curbing fundamentalism by measuring the number of terrorist attacks carried out across the country, ‘de-radicalization’ of Salafi-Jihadists, and the request made by other countries to import Moroccan expertise in de-radicalization, namely Mali and France.

This study examines how Jal?l al-D?n Mu?ammad Rumi's Mathnawi refigures exclusive religious identity through narrative rather than doctrinal argument. While previous scholarship has primarily explored Rumi's mystical thought and religious pluralism, this study focuses on the literary strategies through which his narratives reshape readers' understanding of religious identity. Drawing on Paul Ricoeur's concept of narrative refiguration and employing close textual analysis, it examines three stories from the Mathnawi: “Moses and the Shepherd”, “The Elephant in the Dark”, and “The Grapes Story”. The analysis demonstrates that Rumi employs narrative reversal, allegory, symbolism, dialogue, and multilingual mediation to challenge rigid religious boundaries and encourage a more relational understanding of religious belonging. The study argues that the Mathnawi is not only a work of mystical instruction but also a literary text whose narrative form actively transforms readers' perceptions of religious identity.

The purpose of this article is to re-examine the religious identity of Tonghak 東學 by analyzing Ch’oe Cheu’s awareness of the problems found in nineteenth-century Korean society. Previous studies have not fairly assessed the religious identity of Tonghak. They have often regarded it either as a mere syncretism, a religion constructed to confront Sŏhak 西學, or a sect subordinate to Confucianism. To begin with, it is necessary to analyze the name ‘‘Tonghak,’’ which can be divided into the characters ‘‘tong’’ 東 (east) and ‘‘hak’’ 學 (learning). It is a common understanding that the tong is presented as a contrast with ‘‘sŏ’’ 西 (west). However, the tong here references ‘‘Tongguk’’ 東國, another name for Chosŏn 朝鮮, the ruling dynasty of Korea at the time. Thus, a proper translation of ‘‘Tonghak’’ would not be ‘‘Eastern Learning,’’ but the ‘‘Learning of Tongguk (Chosŏn).’’ As such, the name Tonghak was chosen to differentiate the religion from Chinese Confucianism as well as from Sŏhak (i.e., Catholicism). Meanwhile, Ch’oe Cheu called his awakening Ch’ŏndo 天 道 or mugŭk taedo 無極大道. Ch’ŏndo was a pre-existing concept developed by ancient thinkers in East Asia. Translated literally it means ‘‘Heavenly Way’’ and refers to how its followers should revere ch’ŏnmyŏng 天命 (will/mandate of Heaven) and obey ch’ŏlli 天理 (principle of Heaven). By inheriting and restoring this Heavenly Way, Ch’oe Cheu was attempting to rescue the people of his time, who he believed were indulging in kakcha wisim 各自爲心 (selfishness with no concern for others). However, Ch’oe added an element of newness in restoring the ancient Ch’ŏndo. This novelty, a result of his decisive religious experience, may be summarized with the ideas of sich’ŏnju 侍天主 (God is immanent in everyone), muwi ihwa 無爲而化 (natural becoming without any artificial effort), and susim chŏnggi 守心正氣 (preserving the original mind and rectifying the vital force or ki). Thus, Ch’oe Cheu’s Tonghak secured the specificity of the learning of Tongguk (Chosŏn) and the universality of the modern succession of Ch’ŏndo, while securing the singularity of Tonghak through sich’ŏnju, muwi ihwa, and susim chŏnggi. As a result, while completely recovering a life separated from Heaven, he opened a new path, which differed from Catholicism and Confucianism, by saying that God is not outside us but is present in everyone (both transcendent and immanent).

Providing a point for comparison between the experiences of women in Malaysia and western feminist literature, this article explores academic careers in an Islamic country. The analysis takes place within a framework that considers and interrogates the ways in which Islamic woman has functioned, and continues to function, as a marker of oppression in feminist discourse and in the global me- dia environment. It addresses key factors that Malaysian academic women consider to be important in the process of establishing them- selves within the academic hierarchy at the early to mid stages of their academic careers.

With increasing political instability and economic uncertainty in many parts of the Muslim world, the flow of Muslim immigrants has continued along diverse paths across the globe. South Korea is one of the countries receiving a variety of these Muslim immigrants, especially with the relatively recent arrival of Yemeni asylum seekers in 2018 and Afghan evacuees in 2021. This study adopts a field-based qualitative approach, drawing on the author's long?term residence and sustained engagement with Muslim communities in Korea. It examines the challenges facing Muslim immigrants across key stages of family life, including marriage, child?rearing, and death and funeral arrangements. The findings suggest that these challenges are not merely practical difficulties but reflect broader structural conditions that shape migrants’ sense of long?term settlement and belonging. Across the family life course, the responsibility for maintaining religious continuity often falls primarily on families rather than being supported by public institutions. The study contributes to scholarship on migration and religion and offers insights for policies aimed at fostering more inclusive forms of multicultural coexistence in South Korea.

This study examines how Korean creation myths, shaped by the nation's historical, cultural, and ecological context, have significantly influenced the religious identity and worldview of the Korean people. Through a comparative analysis with the Genesis creation narratives, it explores theological parallels and differences, illuminating how indigenous cosmologies helped prepare the ground for the reception of biblical creation. These traditional narratives not only resonated with existing cultural frameworks but also contributed to the broader acceptance and growth of Christianity in Korea. The study further reflects on the ecotheological significance of these myths and their relevance for shaping contextual missional practices within the contemporary Korean Church.

This work analyzes how and why protracted asymmetric conflict persists and changes. It argues that the paradigm of strategical calculations and choices provides more accurate answers to the question than the theory of symbolic group fears and myths. Ethnic and religious conflict occurs if and when parties do not possess credible information about the behavior of others. Also, likelihood of a conflict settlement depends on the probability of winning, the time estimate required to win, the cost rate of conflict, and the payoff values from winning. In fact, the recent transformations in asymmetric conflicts among the secular Kemalits, the Kurdish nationalists, and political Islamists in Turkey can be explained by the incentive-driven approaches. Due to the significant rise of pro-Islamic JDP and the sudden status change of Iraqi Kurds, the preferences of actors have been largely modified. In specific, given that the stakes of psychological conflict are not based on tangible materialistic resources and thus not dividable, the probability of settlement in identity asymmetry is higher than others. In turn, political control conflict deals with quite limited stakes and induces high competition. Thus, risk-aversion in political authority asymmetry is often enough to motivate conflict escalation.

What follows is a reflection on teaching, contextualized by two sometimes complementary, sometimes tensive elements: (1) my commitment as a theological educator to deploying the literature of the social construction of whiteness in order to address questions of white privilege and racism and (2) my ambivalent reaction to this same literature, especially when the subject turns to Irish-American racism. I will first describe and interpret both my sympathy for and resistance to elements of the literature of the social construction of whiteness. Next, I will attend to the complex interaction between what I judge to be the “null” and “implicit” curricula inscribed within some of this literature and how these tacit elements interact with elements of my own Irish-American identity strongly enough to impact my teaching. In a brief concluding segment, I will move from anecdotal reflections on teaching to a brief methodological statement on the importance of systematic analysis of the “tacit dimensions” of teaching and learning.

This paper aims at examining the spiritual Awakening Movement,Pyongyang Great Revival Movement of 1907, in view of the relationship between the religious identity and nationalism of the Korean Christian. There has been disagreement throughout Korean Church History about what effect, if any, the Awakening Movement had on the formation of national identity of Korean Christian. To approach this problem I proposed,as the starting point, that nationalism, as distinguished from patriotism,was formed in relation to a period of historic modernization of Korea. I demonstrated that the Korean Christian was looking for the formation of their national identity consistent with Christian ethics. The American missionary asserted profound influence on the formation of nationalism. To demonstrate my thesis I investigated, first, the influence of the American missionary in view of a theological understanding - the election of a nation with a specific task. Second, I described the work of the Independence Club regarding the formation of nationalism. I chose it, because Korean Christians, as well as the leader of Awakening Movement,Seonju Gil, participated in this Club for the independence of the nation. Lastly, I showed the understanding of the relationship between religious identity and nationality of the minister Seonju Gil, who led the Pyongyang Great Revival Movement. I focused on explaining the relationship between them, and further, how to overcome the conflict between them in view of cultural imperialism. We have to attend to the fact that Korean Christians tried to suggest a proper and theological solution to historical situation in accordance with biblical interpretation. From this perspective we will be able to find the solution to the debate of opposites.