Earticle

본 논문에서는 각 사용자에게 적합한 게임의 난이도 조절을 위하여 인간의 생리적 반응을 분석하는 방법을 이 용하여 객관적이고 정량적인 사용자 반응을 측정하는 방식을 사용하였다. 생리적 신호 측정 방식 중 인간의 인 지와 감정을 계량하는데 적합한 뇌파 신호를 측정하고 기존의 연구에서 사용되었던 지표를 이용해 측정한 신 호를 분석하였다. 그리고 기존의 다른 분야에서 사용하던 지표를 게임의 난이도에 적합하게 개선하여 기존의 방식을 그대로 사용한 결과와 비교하여 어떤 개선점을 보이는지 확인하였다. 이를 위해 먼저 피험자의 휴식 상 태에서 나타나는 뇌파를 측정하여 기준이 되는 배경 뇌파로 사용하였다. 테트리스에 두 가지 난이도를 설정하 고 각각의 난이도를 진행하는 피험자의 뇌파를 측정하였다. 각 난이도에서 측정한 뇌파와 기준이 되는 배경 뇌 파의 차이를 각 난이도를 진행할 때 피험자가 보이는 뇌파 반응의 결과로 간주하였다. 이 결과를 기반으로 지 금까지 다양한 분야에서 지표로 삼았던 뇌파의 대역별 주파수 변환 결과를 비교 지표로 사용하는 방식과 좌뇌 와 우뇌의 비대칭성을 기반으로 긍정, 부정을 파악하는 지표로 사용하는 방식, 알파파와 베타파의 비례 값을 각성, 이완의 지표로 사용하는 방식으로 분석하였다. 마지막으로 세타파를 기준으로 알파파와의 비례 결과와 베타파와의 비례 결과를 각각 몰입과 긴장의 지표로 이용하여 분석하였다.

This study focused an analysis of physiological signals to provide suitable difficulty levels of computer games. The analysis of measured human physiological signals is objective and quantitative. This study used the electroencephalogram(EEG) analysis which is appropriate method of measuring human cognition and emotion. The existing indicators and improved indicators were used to analyze the EEG signals. EEG signals of participants in the rest state were measured as a reference. The EEG signals of participants in the low difficulty levels and high difficulty levels of the Tetris game were measured. The difference of EEG signals between each state and rest states were used as results of each states. This study used the indicators which are comparing the spectral power of each bands, arousal index, valence index. And the immersion indicator and the concentration indicator were modified. The immersion indicator is the ratio between alpha and theta, and the concentration indicator is the ratio between beta and theta. It means that the immersion and concentration were slightly high with high difficulty levels of the game than low difficulty levels of the game. The meaning of this study is that the quantitative way to alternate the feedback from self-report survey about the game difficulty is added by modifying the established indicators.

The present study sought to investigate whether (i) the types of output task or (ii) the difficulty levels of target forms would have different effects on the learning of target language forms. To this end, three intact classes at Korean high school (64 female students) were divided into three experimental groups. They were asked to complete picture-cued writing tasks, reconstruction tasks, or essay writing tasks, which involved two target forms at different difficulty levels. Both the pretest and posttest were designed to assess the learners’ knowledge of the target language forms prior to and after the treatments. The results showed that the picture-cued writing and reconstruction tasks were more effective than the essay writing task in the learning of the relatively less difficult form. On the other hand, in learning the more difficult form, the students who completed the picture-cued writing task outperformed those who carried out the reconstruction or essay writing tasks. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

이 연구의 목적은 수상스키 슬라롬 경기 시 단계별 난이도가 심박수, 혈중젖산농도에 미치는 영향을 알아보는 것이다. 대상자로 수상스키 슬라롬 여자국가대표 9명을 선정하여 심박수는 안정시, 각 단계 종료후(4단계) 총 5회 측정 하였으며, 혈중젖산농도는 안정시, 각 단계종료후(4단계), 수상스키 종료 5분후, 30분후 총 7회 측정하였다. 심박수는 무선심박측정기(Polar, Finland), 혈중젖산농도는 젖산분석기(Lactate pro2 LT-1730,Japan)로 측정하였다. 측정 된 데이터는 SPSS22.0 통계프로그램을 사용하여 Repeated One-Way ANOVA 방법으로 분석하였으며, Contrast의 Simple과 Repeated 방법을 사용하여 사후비교 하였다. 수상스키 슬라롬 경기 시 평균심박수는 안정시부터 1단계, 2단 계까지 증가하다가 3단계, 4단계까지 유지하였다(p<.001). 최고심박수는 안정시부터 1단계에 유의하게 증가한 후 4 단계까지 유지하였다(p<.001). 혈중젖산농도는 안정시부터 4단계까지 지속적으로 증가하다가 종료 5분후, 30분후는 낮아지는 경향을 나타냈다(p<.001). 결론적으로 수상스키 슬라롬 경기 시 높은 심박수와 높은 혈중젖산농도를 보였다. 따라서 수상스키 슬라롬 경기는 고강도 운동을 연속적으로 수행할 수 있는 체력요소와 체력훈련이 필요한 것으로 사료 된다.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of step level difficulty on heart rate and blood lactate concentration in a water ski slalom competition. The heart rate was measured 5 times at the end of each phase (Stage 4), and the blood lactate concentration was measured 7 times after the end of each phase (Stage 4), 5 minutes after the end of water skiing, and 30 minutes after stabilization. The heart rate was measured with a wireless heart rate monitor (Polar, Finland) and the blood lactate concentration was measured with a lactate analyzer (Lactate pro2 LT-1730, Japan). The measured data were analyzed using the Repeated One-Way ANOVA method using the SPSS 22.0 statistical program, and compared using Post Simple and Repeated methods of Contrast. During the water ski slalom, the average heart rate increased from Stable to Stage 1 and Stage 2, but was maintained in Stage 3 and Stage 4 (p =.001).The peak heart rate was significantly increased from the first phase to the fourth phase after stabilization (p=.001). Blood lactate concentration increased steadily from stage 4, but decreased after 5 minutes and 30 minutes (p= .001). In conclusion, we showed high heart rate and high blood lactate concentration in water ski slalom competition. Therefore, it is considered that the water ski slalom competition requires the fitness factor and the physical fitness training to continuously perform the high intensity exercise.

게임의 레벨은 게임의 재미와 난이도를 결정하는 매우 중요한 요소이다. 게임 레벨은 일반적으로 게임 디자이너가 수작업으로 디자인하며, 이는 시간과 비용을 소모한다. 이 논문에서는 깊이 우선 탐색 기법을 이용해 구슬 미로 게임을 자동으로 플레이하여 난이도를 측정한다. 제안된 방법을 통해 게임 디자이너는 생성된 게임 레벨의 난이도를 평가하고 게임의 밸런스를 조절하여 원하는 난이도의 게임 레벨을 생성하는데 소모되는 시간을 줄일 수 있다.

The objective of this paper is to propose a method of how to perform risk assessment in the early stage of defense research and development for the acquisition of weapon systems. An advanced method for risk assessment and its associated objective functions are developed first based on the concept of systems engineering. The developed method is then applied to carry out the analysis of alternatives in the trade-off environments. As a case study, the multi-purpose training ship is considered, where it is performed using the notions of technology readiness levels, degrees of difficulty, and technology need values to facilitate design space visualization and decision maker interaction. It is noted that decision makers can benefit from our approach as an improved risk assessment method in the context of multi-criteria decision making.

본고에서는 JLPT N4〜N5 수준의 표현 문형 난이도를 이해와 표현의 관점에서 학습자 수준별로 조사하였다. 그 주요 결과는 다음과 같다. (1) 학습자 上보다는 下가 이해도와 표현도에서 모두 난이도를 높게 판정하고 있다. (2) 한국인 학습자 입장에서 난이도 순위에 의하면, 어느 정도(34.6%)의 N5 표현 문형을 N4로 조정하는 것이 예상된다. (3) 학습자 수준에 따른 각 표현 문형의 난이도 비교해 보면, 학습자(上·下)는 이해도에서 63.9%, 표현도에서 38.0%가 유의한 차이를 보이고 있다. (4) 이해도와 표현도의 난이도 차이 비교해 보면, 학습자는 대부분(上 93.5%, 下 95.4%) 이해도보다 표현도에 서 높다. (5) 표현 문형의 난이도는 ‘동사たがる, ~てさしあげる, (さ)せてください, さし上げる, 下さる, 동사ていると ころだ, いただく, ~ていただく, 동사だす, 동사たところだ 등’의 순서로 높다. (6) 표현 의도의 난이도는 ‘희망②, 의뢰②, 수급(受給), 계속, 비유·상황, 양태(樣態), 추량·개언(槪言), 개시, 종 료, 양보 등’의 순서로 높다.

This study investigated the difficulty of Japanese-Language Proficiency Test N4〜N5 levels in terms of degree of understanding and expression based on the learners’ levels. The key results are as follows. (1) Low-level learners judge the difficulty levels of degree of understanding and expression higher than upper-level learners. (2) From the perspective of Korean learners’ ranking of difficulty levels, it is expected to adjust some (34.6%) N5 level sentence patterns to N4 level. (3) Results of difficulty level comparison of sentence patterns based on the level of learners showed that upper and low-level learners were statistically significant at 63.9% for degree of understanding and 38.0% for degree of expression. (4) Difficulty levels in degree of understanding and expression showed that degree of expression is higher than degree of understanding in most of the learners (Upper-level 93.5%, Low-level 95.4%). (5) Difficulty in sentence patterns increases in the order of verb tagaru, ~te sashiageru, (sa)sete kudasai, sashiageru, kudasaru, verb te iru tokoro da, itadaku, ~te itadaku, verb dasu, and verb ta tokoro da. (6) Difficulty in expression of intention increases in the order of hope②, request②, benefactive, continuity, analogy and condition, appearance, conjecture and presumption, commencement, conclusion, and concession.

The current study explores the effects that learners’ perceptions of text difficulty have on L2 outcomes and learning attitudes, focusing on Korean college students. One-hundred and twenty-seven learners were assigned to low-, medium-, and high-level groups based on their perceptions of English text difficulty. The study employed a background questionnaire, pre- and post-English tests, and pre- and post-language learning attitude questionnaires. The results of the study revealed that learners who wanted a more challenging level of text-difficulty outperformed those who did not in terms of English achievement. The findings also showed that two groups, the medium- and high-level groups, did not exhibit significant differences regarding English knowledge gains based on their expressed preferences for an advanced level course. As for learners’ attitudes, the three groups gave similar responses to a learning attitudes questionnaire that assessed the effectiveness of optimally challenging course levels on their language competence, their current proficiency levels, and learning confidence in future English learning. Based on those findings, suggestions are given for practitioners to implement into EFL classrooms.

This study investigated if the difficulty of instructional classroom English in primary teacher-guidebooks of English is adequately manipulated by learner-proficiency. Corpora of classroom English were compiled from 20 guidebooks from five publishers, approved following the 2015 Revised National Curriculum of Korea. Extracted materials from grades three and four were compared with those of grades five and six to observe variations in the difficulty. Coh-Metrix, a software application that computes an extensive range of measures on cohesion and language, was used for analyses. With evidence-based assessments on (psycho)linguistic features and patterns of classroom English, we report results both congruent and incongruent with the prospect that the difficulty should increase as learners become more proficient. Overall, although partial difficulty manipulations between the two levels were noted, inconsistent results and invariances were also observed, disclosing much room for improvement of classroom English in the guidebooks. Some implications toward teacher-guidebook development, particularly in its classroom English, are suggested.

본고에서는 JLPT N4〜N5 수준의 표현 문형 난이도를 이해와 표현의 관점에서 학습자 수준별로 조사하였다. 그 주요 결과는 다음과 같다. (1) 학습자 上보다는 下가 이해도와 표현도에서 모두 난이도를 높게 판정하고 있다. (2) 한국인 학습자 입장에서 난이도 순위에 의하면, 어느 정도(34.6%)의 N5 표현 문형을 N4로 조정하는 것이 예상된다. (3) 학습자 수준에 따른 각 표현 문형의 난이도 비교해 보면, 학습자(上·下)는 이해도에서 63.9%, 표현도에서 38.0%가 유의한 차이를 보이고 있다. (4) 이해도와 표현도의 난이도 차이 비교해 보면, 학습자는 대부분(上 93.5%, 下 95.4%) 이해도보다 표현도에서 높다. (5) 표현 문형의 난이도는 ‘동사たがる, ~てさしあげる, (さ)せてください, さし上げる, 下さる, 동사ているところだ, いただく, ~ていただく, 동사だす, 동사たところだ 등’의 순서로 높다. (6) 표현 의도의 난이도는 ‘희망②, 의뢰②, 수급(受給), 계속, 비유·상황, 양태(樣態), 추량·개언(槪言), 개시, 종료, 양보 등’의 순서로 높다.

This study investigated the difficulty of Japanese-Language Proficiency Test N4?N5 levels in terms of degree of understanding and expression based on the learners’ levels. The key results are as follows. (1) Low-level learners judge the difficulty levels of degree of understanding and expression higher than upper-level learners. (2) From the perspective of Korean learners’ ranking of difficulty levels, it is expected to adjust some (34.6%) N5 level sentence patterns to N4 level. (3) Results of difficulty level comparison of sentence patterns based on the level of learners showed that upper and low-level learners were statistically significant at 63.9% for degree of understanding and 38.0% for degree of expression. (4) Difficulty levels in degree of understanding and expression showed that degree of expression is higher than degree of understanding in most of the learners (Upper-level 93.5%, Low-level 95.4%). (5) Difficulty in sentence patterns increases in the order of verb tagaru, ~te sashiageru, (sa)sete kudasai, sashiageru, kudasaru, verb te iru tokoro da, itadaku, ~te itadaku, verb dasu, and verb ta tokoro da. (6) Difficulty in expression of intention increases in the order of hope②, request②, benefactive, continuity, analogy and condition, appearance, conjecture and presumption, commencement, conclusion, and concession.

The purpose of this study was to investigate difficulty levels of reading passages in middle school 3rd graders’ English textbooks, based on the 2009 revised National Curriculum. Three kinds of middle school English textbooks were selected and their readability was measured by Flesch-Kincaid’s Reading Ease Formula (Kincaid, Fishburne, Rogers, & Chissom, 1975). Also, the vocabulary difficulty presented in the texts was measured by using the basic vocabulary list of the 2009 National Curriculum. The results of data analysis are as follows; 1) the difficulty level of reading texts in three English textbooks might not be inappropriate for Korean middle school students according to the formula. 2) The level of difficulty in vocabulary, which is measured by the application rate of the basic vocabulary list, was low in all three textbooks. 3) The complexity of sentence form is similar in every reading passage of all three books. The findings of this study show textbooks used as primary learning materials for reading should be modified in terms of difficulty level in vocabulary and sentences.

목적 본 연구는 2018학년도 대학 수학능력 시험 영어영역에 절대 평가제가 도입된 이후 수능 영어 독해지문이 어휘 복잡성(lexical complexity)과 통사적 복잡성(syntactic complexity) 측면에서 일정한 난이도를 유지하고 있는지 분석해 보고자 한다. 방법 이를 위해 2018~2021 수능 영어 독해지문을 대상으로 코퍼스를 구축하였으며 LCA(Lexical Complexity Analyzer)와L2SCA(L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer)를 사용하여 25개의 어휘 복잡성(어휘 밀도, 어휘 수준 정도, 어휘 변화도) 측정치와14개의 통사적 복잡성(생성 단위 길이, 문장 복잡성, 종속성, 등위성, 특정구조) 측정치로 분석하였다. 그리고 연도별 시험의 난이도비교를 위해서 일원 배치 분산분석 (One-way ANOVA)을 수행하였다. 결과 연구 결과에 따르면 2018~2021 수능 영어 독해지문은 모든 측정치에서 유의미한 난이도 차이를 보이지 않은 것으로 나타났다. 결론 이상의 연구 결과는 절대 평가제 도입 이후 4년 동안 수능 영어 독해지문이 어휘 복잡성 및 통사적 복잡성의 측면에서 난이도의일관성을 유지하고 있다는 것을 보여준다. 또한 이 연구는 수능 절대평가제와 관련하여 교육적 함의와 시사섬을 제공하고 있다.

Objectives The purpose of the present study is to investigate whether the CSAT(College Scholastic Ability Test) English reading passages are consistent in the level of difficulty on the basis of the criterion-referenced assessment introduced in the 2018 academic year. Methods To achieve this goal, English reading passages from the 2018-2021 academic years were collected and analyzed with 25 measures for lexical complexity(lexical density, lexical sophistication, and lexical variation) and 14 measures for syntactic complexity(length of production, sentence complexity, subordination, coordination, and particular structures). In order to see if there was a statistically significant difference among the four tests, one-way ANOVA was performed. Results The results show that there was no significant difference in terms of lexical complexity and syntactic complexity among the CSAT English reading passages during the academic years 2018-2021. Conclusions This suggests that there was no significant yearly variance in the CSAT English sections under the criterion-referenced assessment. Additionally, the findings of this study provides some pedagogical implications and suggestions for the implementation of the criterion-referenced assessment.

The Sinicization and localization of Chinese textbooks have become key research areas in both Chinese and Korean language education fields. When designing Chinese textbooks for Korean learners, it is crucial to consider their native language background and specific characteristics of Chinese language acquisition, in order to tailor the instructional difficulty and grammatical annotations accordingly. Based on this premise, the present study takes the polyfunctional word "给" (gěi) at the beginner level as a case study. Firstly, it examines the distribution of this word in current Chinese textbooks used in Korea and finds that the sequencing of "给" varies across different textbooks. Secondly, the study synthesizes existing views on "language difficulty grading" and proposes two key principles for assessing the difficulty of "给" for Korean learners: "cross-linguistic difference comparison" and "examination of productive discourse." Finally, the study applies these two principles to establish a difficulty ranking for the uses of "给" from easiest to most difficult: “给1” > “给3” > “给2” > “给4”. This ordering provides guidance for the future compilation of Chinese textbooks for Korean learners and the design of Chinese language instruction.

本文对母语为韩国的学生易错的现代汉语“有”字句，从“有”字句本身的角度和与韩语对比的角度，根据句式的结构复杂度、语义复杂度、是否具有语用功能、是否是口语或文体结构以及汉语和韩语的跨语言差距的原则，对现代汉语“有”字句的难度等级进行了分析。根据邓守信(2018)的难度等级和循序式教学方法，本文将对韩“有”字句的教学分为四阶段。希望此研究，为母语为韩语的汉语学习者对“有”字句的学习，以及对韩汉语教学的语法教学、教材安排和教学方案提供帮助。

This paper aims to investigate whether the reading texts in TOPIK have been correctly selected according to the different levels and whether the level of reading texts have sustained coherence within the same test levels. For this purpose, the 13th to 15th TOPIKs' reading texts were taken and analysed into syntactically-tagged corpus from which syntactic complexity of matrix clauses and embedded clauses were extracted. The syntactically-tagged corpus were classified into 9 different texts, according to the different levels and the times the tests were taken. After comparing those texts from various points of view, it was concluded that intermediate level texts were more difficult than those of advanced level. In addition, only the advanced level texts were coherent from 13th to 15th TOPIK. Following these results, it is suggested that the intermediate reading texts be made easier and the advanced texts made more difficult by modifying embedded clauses in the reading texts. Accumulation of text corpus can help towards solving these types of problems in selecting texts for TOPIK. (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)

This paper aims to investigate whether the various texts in Korean textbooks have been correctly selected according to the different levels and whether the level of various texts show syntactic coherence within the same difficulty levels. For this purpose, three sorts of texts (main text, hearing text, and reading text) in Korean published by Seoul National University were taken and analysed into syntactically-tagged corpus from which syntactic complexity of matrix clauses and embedded clauses were extracted. The syntactically-tagged corpus were classified into 12 different texts, according to the different levels and the sort of texts. After comparing those texts from various points of view, it was concluded that the level of three sorts of texts in Korean do not show syntactic coherence within the same textbooks. In addition, only the main texts has been correctly selected according to the different levels. Following these results, it is suggested that especially the hearing texts in Korean 3 be made more difficult by modifying embedded clauses in those texts.

컴퓨터 프로그래밍 수업에서 학습자들의 평소 학습 이해도를 파악하는 방법으로 형성평가가 보편적으로 많이 이용되고 있다. 교수자에게 형성평가는 학습자들의 이해도를 파악하는 방법이지만, 평가 결과를 성적에 반영할 때 학습자들에게는 학습 동기를 향상시킬 수 있는 요소임을 선행 연구를 통해 알 수 있었다. 본 연구에서는 수년간 컴퓨터 프로그래밍 수업에 적용해온 형성평가의 문제 난이도를 조절하여 난이도가 학습자들의 학습 동기 부여에 얼마나 영향을 미치는 요소인지를 살펴보고자 한다. 특히 형성 평가에 출제한 문제의 난이도 정도가 형성평가 다음에 이어지는 중간고사나 기말고사 등의 큰 평가에서 얼마나 긍정적인 영향을 미치는지를 통해 학습 동기 부여 정도를 분석하고자 한다.

만화를 통한 수학학습 수준별 의미적 처리과정을 측정하기 위하여 덧셈학습의 유형을 단순계산과 복잡계산으로 나누어 뇌반구성과 사건유발전위(event-related potential: ERP)를 분석하였다. 뇌반구성은 좌우뇌의 균형발달과 좌우뇌의 기능적 특성을 나타내는 지표로 뇌의 특정 위치에 대한 전위의 변화를 분석하였다. 사건유발전위는 자극을 반복적으로 제시한 후 나타나는 전기적 활동을 측정하여 뇌의 특성을 분석하는 것으로 주의과정을 나타내는 P300, 이해도를 보이는 N400, 그리고 재구성 및 회상에 대한 P600을 분석하였다. 만화를 통한 수학학습을 단순계산과 복잡계산으로 나누어 좌우뇌 특성과의 함축적 연합검사(implicit association test: IAT) 가운데 반구성과 사건유발전위가 측정되었다. 실험결과, 전두엽에서 연합이 비연합보다 P300L(F8), P600L(F4, F8)이 의미있는 차이를 보였으며, 자발뇌파를 통한 반구성에서는 전두엽(F3-F4, F7-F8), 두정엽(P3-P4), 측두엽(T3-T4), 후두엽(O1-O2)에서 의미있는 차이를 가져왔다.

This research performed brain hemispherity and event-related potential (ERP) to find out any implications to design and develop the semantic process of brain function and structure in computerized cartoon arithmetic addition learning. Brain hemispherity is examined the change of the potentials of the brain for the balanced development of the left and right brain. Event-related potential is measured the electric activity by presenting the stimulus repeatedly. ERP consists of P300 which represents the attention process, and N400 for the understanding level, and P600 includes the reconstruction and recollection. Arithmetic addition has the simple and complex calculation which are connected to the characteristics of the left and right brain by the implicit association test (IAT). The results of this study shows the statistically significant difference for P300L (F8) and P600L (F4, F8) in event- related potentials. Brain hemispherity results shows the statistically significant difference for frontal lobe (F3-F4, F7-F8), parietal lobe (P3-P4), temporal love (T3-T4), and occipital lobe (O1-O2).

게임의 난이도는 게임의 재미와 깊은 연관이 있다. 하지만 게임 레벨의 난이도를 적절하게 결정하는 것은 쉽지 않다. 대부분의 경우 사람의 실제 게임 플레이를 통한 테스트가 요구한다. 또한 정량적인 평가도 어렵다. 따라서 게임 레벨 난이도의 정량적 평가를 자동으로 수행하는 것은 게임 개발에 많은 도움이 될 것이다. 이 논문에서는 경로 탐색 알고리즘을 사용하여 게임 레벨의 길 찾기 난이도를 평가하였다. 길을 찾는 것은 많은 게임들의 기본 속성으로 게임 레벨의 전반적인 난이도를 대표한다. 그리고 우리는 게임 레벨의 탐색 가능 영역이 동적으로 확장되고 다시금 탐색이 요구되는 경우 이전 경로 탐색 결과를 재사용하여 난이도 평가 알고리즘의 성능을 최적화하였다.

The difficulty of the game is closely related to the fun of the game. However, it is not easy to determine the appropriate level of difficulty of the game. In most cases, human playtesting is required. But even so, it is still hard to quantitatively evaluate difficulty of the game. Thus, if we perform quantitative evaluation of the difficulty automatically it will be very helpful in game developments. In this paper, we use a path finding algorithm to evaluate difficulty of exploration in a game level. Exploration is a basic attribute in common video games and it represents the overall difficulty of the game level. We also optimize the proposed evaluation algorithm by using previous exploration histories when available area in an game level is dynamically expanded and the new search is required.