Earticle

Typography was invented independently in East Asia and Europe. However, the ripple effect was significantly different in East Asia and Europe. There have been various explanations that try to clarify whether the difference was caused by technological or cultural differences. Until now, most of the explanations about Eastern typography have come up with simplified conclusions, refering only to the backwardness of Eastern typography or the conservative character of Eastern society. Previous studies tended to compare East Asia and Europe in the simple time frame, leading the conclusion that "the ripple effect was small in Eastern society as their typography was primitive and Eastern culture tended to be conservative." The purpose of this study is to suggest that we can explain why East Asian and European typographies brought out different social effects on each society only when we understand such differences between East Asia and Europe as the tradition of ancient Eastern xylography, distinctive features of ancient Eastern culture, and characteristics of materials for paper and its production procedures. When we carry out comparative study of East Asian and European printing technologies, it is necessary to take comprehensive social and cultural approach not just to "superiority or inferiority of printing technology", but also to "varieties of printing culture."

Cheonan, located in the middle of Korean peninsula, was the center of the transportation and communication of the nation from the traditional era. Its transportational importance was more enlarged when Chungnam and Kyungnam Railway Line were constructed during the Japanese ruling period and Kyungbu Railway Line and Kyungbu Highway were finished constructing during the modernization of Republic of Korea. Through these transportational function and feature, Cheonan has developed its main role as politically, militarily, economically, socially and culturally leading center in the nation. We could also conform that Cheonan was one of the most important areas of the nation geographically and militarily when we see Wanggun installed Cheonandodokbu during his reunification process in the post three states era. The social status of Cheonan in the Chosun Dynasty can be traced by the list of sungsijo(origin of the families), Samasi exam passers and their native places in the Sejongsillokjiriji and the distribution of their last names and the list of the people who were commemorated in the temple which is written in Yungsungji. As a result, we can see that Cheonan was sustained mainly by the Jeonju Lees, the Andong Kims, the Poongsan Hongs and some other family groups through their restraint and balance. The road has been the most important factor to connect goods, culture and people not only in the traditional era, but still in the modern society. For its central location of the nation, Cheonan was the city inevitably to pass by from Seoul to Samnam and Samnam to Seoul. Therefore we can say that the meaning and value of Cheonan, especially Cheonansamgeori (the intersection of three streets in Cheonan) as the center of communication is very remarkable. It is the historical tradition, symbol and meaning of Cheonansamgeori that has to be stepping stone to make vision of present and future, beyond simple recognition of the past. We have to revive the dynamic feature of Cheonan as the center of transportation and the political, economical, social and cultural identity of Cheonansamgeori. We also need to find out the way of future development of Cheonan.

Kaifeng(開封) and Hangzhou(杭州) has enormous population which is composed of diverse classes such as Gongrens(宮人), relatives of emperor, officers, militaries, merchants, handicraftsmen, Kehus(客戶), religionists, lessor, usurers and so on. According to historical documents, there was landlord who dedicated to other people property of housing; furthermore there was soaring housing price. This leasing service had various prices range from 10 Wen(文) to 10 Guan(貫). Compare to current consumer’s price, if they had earned 15 Guan(貫) in month, this is enough for a family consist of 10 persons. Dianzhaiwu(店宅務) which has managed more than 20,000 Jian(間) of housing services –this measurement is high ratio in Kaifeng(開封)- is constructed from the founding of Song dynasty. Rental fee was 400～500 Wen(文) in Zhenzong(眞宗) and Renzong(仁宗) period; moreover this price has been raised 5 Guan(貫) in Shenzong period. Rental fee has manipulated by hierarchy, consequently deviation of housing fee differed greatly. Most of high hierarchy was official and military Kehu(客戶) and merchant (even government) leased other’s house. There were several characteristics of arrangement of housing fee. The price was high when if the person has leased by higher class. Also the price in Kaifeng(開封) was higher than other small city. A landlord had enormous benefits for rental fee; otherwise the needy had to pay their housing fee from their poor income. However this demonstrates the fact that the needy supported their life with paying their housing fee. Also lower leveled officer could keep their living with paying housing fee. Furthermore high leveled officer had abundant living even they rented luxurious house. According to Engel’s Law, landlords have lower Engel values than tenants.

This essay focused on various discourses related to the conception of 'Nation' in late Qing of China through synthetic examination on the concept of cultural 'ethnic' and political 'nation', or relationship of state. The late Qing era of China considered on the research was traditional World-system of China collapsing from the impact of Western civilization and the period that nation-state concept of modern switched was needed. And the conceptions of meeting the trend of the day swiftly flew from Western civilization, however, as the late Qing's intellectuals used together with and in conjunction with the terms and definitions, such as 'race,' 'people,' 'nation,' 'ethnic,' 'state,' 'rights,' and 'sovereignty,' had even not current researchers as well as Chinese at that time convey the definite meaning of the new terms. In order to solve these problems, This essay uses the conceptual analytical frame which is called a concept of cultural 'ethnic' and political 'nation', then tried to approach about accommodating process of the concept of cultural 'ethnic' political 'nation', and the late Qing intellectuals's recognition on 'nation' and 'people', and late Qing Chinese's various discourses which besieged the cultural 'ethnic' with the perspective of a conceptional history. As result of this research, even though the concept of 'Clan class(族類)' frequently mentioned in traditional period of China is familiar with the concept of cultural 'ethnic,' after modern period, I could find that the concept like 'nation-state' including cultural 'ethnic' and political 'nation' did not exist at that time. In addition, I confirmed that Chinese from time to time used mixed terms on 'ethnic' and 'people' or 'ethnic' of cultural 'ethnic' was used by 'people of clan' and 'ethnic' in accommodating process of the concept. But they distinguished cultural 'ethnic' from political 'nation' and introduced them as well. Furthermore, Chinese intellectuals defined as different the concept of cultural 'ethnic' and political 'nation' after 1903 and the late Qing intellectuals on the concept of cultural 'ethnic' presented the cultural factors; ancestry, pedigree, language, religion, custom, practice, and history. On contrary they on the concept of political 'nation' mentioned the concepts like 'territory,' 'sovereignty,' 'state,' and 'right'. Finally, I focused on revolutional group and reformative group during the period of XINHAI(辛亥) Revolution and analyzed the perspective of both groups on modern 'nation,' 'state,' and 'people.

From beginning of 20th century in China had been suffered from relentless threat and distress from not only domestic disintegration but also aggressive western attacks. Faced of the crisis upon China, Chinese civilization to be destroyed with loss of confidence were out of line. At this point, Ch'ien Mu(錢穆, 1895～1990) said "it is shame that there is no national pride and sovereignty among Chinese." As working on the subject of Chines history, he pursued Chinese people to restore national pride and preserve their cultural properties as spirits in them. To study Chinese history, Ch'ien Mu emphasized the uniqueness of Chinese history. He thought the process is significantly different between the western history and the Chinese history. He indicated that the ultimate soul intention in Chinese history was embodying in peace. Represents, the most comprehensive concept of peace in Chinese history from ancient time he asserted that the Chinese political system and social structure seeking for reasonable, rational, equal, harmonize, emotion etc. Based on this conviction, he criticized the theory of that China had been feudal, monarchy and the darkness society which claimed by scholars in large numbers since the 19th century. In addition, Ch'ien Mu tried to reconstruct the uniqueness of Chinese history and the Chinese patriotism with a confidence. Futhermore with his spring-blooded enthusiasm, as he accomplished Kuo-shih ta-kang(國史大綱), he led people to bear noble patriotic mind. As a result it brings many patriotic people standings up for saving their own country. To conclude, all of Ch'ien Mu`s life was devoted for restoring national noble pride from collapsed, and devastated country. More to emphasize, Ch'ien Mu himself carried the corroborating Chinese consciousness of anxiety which is a allegiance to endeavor his own duty on preserving the national sovereignty and highly enlightened Chinese culture throughout his relentless study, which subject was Chinese history.

Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin decided the secret agreement about participation in the Pacific war at Yalta. This paper considered the intervention of the United States about the Sino-Soviet Negotiation based on that agreement. The United States intend to put an end to the Pacific war as soon as possible through Soviet Army󰡑s participation, and the Soviet Union wanted to acquire some privileges in Manchuria. They talked the details about this at Yalta, but kept secret to Chiang Kai-Shek until June 15. The United States urged Chinese Government negotiate with Stalin in Moscow, therefore T. V. Soong who was representative of Chinese Government had conferences with Stalin. The nature of the conference was informed to the United States by Ambassador to the Soviet Union Harriman every time finished the conference. the United States Government took a policy of noninvolvement in the Sino-Soviet Negotiation, during the First round of the Moscow talks. But when the Soviet Union demanded some right in Dairen that would be threat the open-door policy, the United States intervened and called upon the soviet Union not to put inordinate demands. We can understand this attitude of the United States was on the basis of the profit of their own country.