Earticle

밀은 공리의 원리에 대한 직접적 증명은 불가능하지만 넓은 의미의 증명은 가능하다고 주장한다. 그는 넓은 의미의 증명의 방법으로 경험적 증거에 기초한 귀납 논증을 제시한다. 밀의 증명에 따르면, ‘어떤 것이 바람직하다는 것에 대한 유일한 증거는 사람들이 실제로 그것을 바라는 것이다.’ 그런데 ‘각자는 자신의 행복을 바라므로 각자의 행복은 각자에게 바람직하고, 일반 행복은 개인들의 집합에 바람직하다.’ 그리고 ‘누구도 행복 외에 다른 어떤 것도 바라지 않기 때문에 오직 행복만이 그 자체로 바람직하다.’ 밀의 증명은 애매성의 오류, 자연주의적 오류, 합성의 오류와 같은 논리적 오류를 범한다고 비판받아 왔다. 하지만 이 비판들은 대부분 밀의 증명에 대한 오해에서 비롯된 것이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 밀의 증명은 공리의 원리, 최대 행복의 원리, 공평성과 같은 용어를 애매하고 모호하게 사용함으로써 많은 혼란과 오해를 불러일으켰다. 무엇보다도 밀의 증명은 ‘도덕의 제1원리’로서 공리의 원리에 대한 증명이 아니라 ‘삶의 기술의 제1원리’인 쾌락주의 가치론에 대한 증명이라는 한계를 안고 있다. 그리고 쾌락주의 가치론에 대한 증명 역시 연상 심리학과 심리적 쾌락주의에 과도하게 의존함으로써 증명의 토대가 취약하다. 결정적으로 밀은 공리주의 도덕의 핵심인 ‘공평성의 요구’를 정당화하는 문제에 있어서 증거에 호소하지 않고 자신이 비판했던 직관에 호소함으로써 이론 체계 내에 부정합성을 드러낸다. 결론적으로 도덕적 공리의 원리에 대한 밀의 증명은 경험주의에 기초한 귀납 논증과 은폐된 직관주의의 부정합적 결합의 산물이다.

J. Stuart Mill argued that the principle of utility was not amenable to direct proof, but capable of being proved in a larger meaning of the word proof by inductive argument on the basis of empirical evidences. According to Mill’s proof, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it. Each person desires his own happiness, and, therefore, we have all the proof that each person’s happiness is a good to that person and the general happiness, therefore, a good to aggregate of all persons. And people cannot desire anything except happiness, so, happiness is the only good in itself. Mill’s proof has been criticized for committing logical errors like a fallacy of equivocation, naturalistic fallacy, and a fallacy of composition. However, these criticisms has mostly come from misunderstanding of Mill’s proof. Nevertheless, Mill used ambiguously and vaguely key words as the principle of utility, the Greatest Happiness Principle, and impartiality in Mill’s proof. Therefore, he has aroused a lot of confusion and misunderstanding. Above all, Mill’s proof is not the proof of the principle of utility as the first principle of morality, but that of the hedonistic theory of value as the first principle of the art of life. Furthermore, because the proof of the hedonistic theory of value relies heavily on association psychology and psychological hedonism, the foundation of the proof is weak. Crucially, By appealing to not evidence but intuition that he has consistently criticized in order to justify the requirement of impartiality which is the essence of utilitarian morals, Mill reveals incoherence within his theoretical system. In conclusion, Mill’s proof of the moral principle of utility is incoherent combination of inductive argument on the basis of empiricism with concealed intuitionism.

본 연구에서는 지하광산 트럭-로더 운반시스템 시뮬레이션 결과를 애니메이션을 통해 직관적으로 확인 할 수 있도록 GPSS/H 시뮬레이션 언어와 PROOF5 프로그램을 결합할 수 있는 방법을 제시하였다. GPSS/H를 이용해 지 하광산 트럭-로더 운반시스템을 시뮬레이션한 후, 그 결과를 PROOF5에 입력 가능한 파일 형식으로 출력하여 시뮬레 이션과 애니메이션을 결합할 수 있었다. 국내 석회석 지하광산에 이 방법을 적용해본 결과 시간에 따른 트럭 위치, 대 기시간, 로더 이용률, 파쇄기 이용률 등과 같은 시뮬레이션 결과를 애니메이션을 통해 한눈에 확인할 수 있었다.

In this study, we proposed a method that can combine the GPSS/H simulation language and the PROOF5 program so that the simulation results of truck-loader haulage systems in an underground mine can be intuitively confirmed through animation. GPSS/H was used to simulate the truck-loader haulage system in an underground mine, and the results were output to a file format that can be input to PROOF5, allowing simulation and animation to be combined. As a result of applying the proposed method to an underground limestone mine in Korea, the simulation result such as the truck position, waiting time, loader utilization rate and crusher utilization rate with time could be confirmed at a glance through animation.

Vote validity proof and verification is an efficiency bottleneck and privacy drawback in homomorphic e-voting. The existing vote validity proof technique is inefficient and only achieves honest-verifier zero knowledge. In this paper, an efficient proof and verification technique is proposed to guarantee vote validity in homomorphic e-voting. The new proof technique is mainly based on hash function operations that only need a very small number of costly public key cryptographic operations. It can handle untrusted verifiers and achieve stronger zero knowledge privacy. As a result, the efficiency and privacy of homomorphic e-voting applications will be significantly improved.

At Asiacrypt 2003, Shin et al., have proposed a new class for Authenticated Key Establishment (AKE) protocol named Leakage-Resilient AKE ${(LR-AKE)}^{[1]}$. The authenticity of LR-AKE is based on a user's password and his/her stored secrets in both client side and server side. In their LR-AKE protocol, no TRM(Tamper Resistant Modules) is required and leakage of the stored secrets from $.$my side does not reveal my critical information on the password. This property is useful when the following situation is considered :(1) Stored secrets may leak out ;(2) A user communicates with a lot of servers ;(3) A user remembers only one password. The other AKE protocols, such as SSL/TLS and SSH (based or PKI), Password-Authenticated Key Exchange (PAKE) and Threshold-PAKE (T-PAKE), do not satisfy that property under the above-mentioned situation since their stored secrets (or, verification data on password) in either the client or the servers contain enough information to succeed in retrieving the relatively short password with off-line exhaustive search. As of now, the LR-AKE protocol is the currently horn solution. In this paper, we prove its security of the LR-AKE protocol in the standard model. Our security analysis shows that the LR-AKE Protocol is provably secure under the assumptions that DDH (Decisional Diffie-Hellman) problem is hard and MACs are selectively unforgeable against partially chosen message attacks (which is a weaker notion than being existentially unforgeable against chosen message attacks).

Current consensus protocols for permissionless blockchain cannot balance security, performance and centralization issues. In the paper, we present a reputation based consensus, FPoR, which combines reputation, committee based consensus, PBFT, reward and penalization mechanisms. FPoR can balance scalability, security and decentralization, and promote fairness, increase participation and strengthen security. Experiment results show that FPoR is with high performance and scalability, which can be used for permissionless blockchain. FPoR can also be extended to permissioned blockchain applications.

In this paper, we present a convergence proof for an iterative procedure of local mode filtering. We formulate the local mode filtering as a quadratic optimization problem based on the Legendre transform of convex function, from which two closed-form expressions at each iteration step are derived for variables to be optimized. Those analytical solutions ensure that the value of objective function increases monotonically with the progress of the iterative procedure. We also show experimental results using a grayscale image, which support our theoretical results practically.

Integrating machine learning (ML) into blockchain consensus mechanisms enhances efficiency, scalability, and resilience. This study introduces the PoA algorithm, an ML-enhanced Proof of Authority mechanism that optimizes signer selection for improved transaction processing. Simulations with models including Random Forest, Logistic Regression, SVM, K-Nearest Neighbors, Decision Tree, and Gradient Boosting showed significant gains. Random Forest reduced latency tenfold, achieving nearly 1000 transactions per second, with 93.33% accuracy, 100% precision, 86.67% recall, and a 92.86% F1-score. These results demonstrate ML’s potential to enhance blockchain performance, making hybrid blockchain-ML solutions a promising research direction.

이 논문에서는 래티스(Lattice)의 CVP (Closest Vector Problem)에 기반한 영지식 증명 기반의 인증프로토콜을 제안한다. CVP를 이용해서 암호시스템을 설계할 때 흔히 사용하는 길이가 짧은 기저벡터를 트랩도어 또는 비밀키로 사용하지 않는 프로토콜로서 의의를 가지며, 프로토콜의 설계가 단순하고 안전성 증명도 쉬워진다. 제안한 프로토콜의 안전성을 completeness, soundness, simulatability로 증명한다.

In this paper, we propose a new closest vector problem based interactive proof that is useful for authentication. Contribution of this paper is that the proposed protocol does not use a special form of a lattice, but a general lattice, which makes the protocol design very simple and easy to be proved. We prove its security in terms of completeness, soundness, simulatability.

RFID 시스템을 이용하여 다수의 태그를 동시에 인증하기 위한 방법으로 Ari Juels는 Yoking-Proof 프로토콜을 제안하였다. 일반적인 Yoking-Proof 방법은 MAC(Message Authentication Code)을 이용하여 인증을 하기 때문에, 저가형 태그에 적용하기가 어렵다. MD5와 같은 일반적인 해쉬함수도 저가형 태그에 구현하는 것은 쉽지 않기 때문이다. 따라서 Ari Juels는 한번만 인증가능한 경량화된 Yoking-Proof 방법도 함께 제안하고 있다. 하지만 제안된 방법에서 사용된 경량화된 MAC인 Minimalist MAC은 그 특성상 한번만 사용가능하고, 또한 제안된 구조는 재생공격에 취약한 구조를 가지고 있다. 따라서 본 논문에서는 Lamport가 제안한 디지털 서명기법을 이용한 경량화된 MAC을 이용하여, 기존에 제안된 논문보다 재생공격에 강하고 다수의 키 값을 저장할 수 있는 형태의 태그를 이용한 Yoking-Proof 프로토콜을 제안한다.

Ari Juels proposed Yoking-Proof protocol for authenticating multiple tags simultaneously using RFID system. Because common Yoking-Proof methods authenticate by using MAC (Message Authentication Code), it is difficult to apply them to inexpensive tags. It is also difficult to implement common hash functions such as MD5 in inexpensive tags. So, Ari Juels also proposed a lightweighted Yoking-Proof method with only 1 authentication. However, Minimalist MAC, which is a lightweighted MAC used in the proposed method is for single-use, and the proposed structure is vulnerable to replay attacks. Therefore, in this study, the minimalist MAC using Lamport's digital signature scheme was adopted, and a new type of Yoking-Proof protocol was proposed where it uses tags that are safe from replay attacks while being able to save multiple key values.

This study introduces novel research using Practice Context Models supported by Knowledge Networks and Percolation Theory with the aim to contribute to knowledge management in Proof-of-Concept (PoC) activities. The authors envision this proposal as a potential instrument to identify network structures based on a percolation (propagation) threshold and to analyze the importance of nodes (e.g., practitioners, practices, competencies, movements, and scenarios) during the percolation of knowledge in PoC activities. After thirty months immersed in the natural PoC habitat, acting as observers and practitioners, and supported by an ethnographic exercise and a designer-research mindset, the authors identified the production of meaning in PoC activities occurring in a hermeneutic circle characterized by the presence of several knowledge networks; thus, discovering the 'natural knowledge' in PoC as a spectrum of cognitive development spread throughout its network, as each node could produce and disseminate certain knowledge that flows and influences other nodes. Therefore, this research presents the use of Practice Context Models 'connected' to Knowledge Networks and Percolation Theory as a potential and feasible proposal to be built using the attribution of values (weights) to the nodes (e.g., practitioners, practices, competencies, movements, scenarios, and also knowledge) in the context of PoC with the aim to allow the players (e.g., PoC practitioners) to have more flexibility in building alliances with other players (new nodes); that is, focusing on those nodes with higher value (focus on quality) in collaboration networks, i.e., alliances (connections) with the aim to contribute to knowledge management in the context of PoC.

Bitcoin is a decentralized electronic cash system with a public ledger called the blockchain. With the proof-of-work (PoW) consensus algorithm, the bitcoin network has effectively solved the minting problem in a decentralized manner and prevented traditional Sybil attacks that would otherwise prevent the network from reaching consensus. However, prior studies have highlighted that partitioning attacks, which split the network into isolated subnets, pose a serious threat by disrupting consensus. Detecting such attacks is challenging due to the absence of a centralized trust anchor and the difficulty of inferring global network topology. In this paper, we propose HEMERA to detect partitioning attacks by observing the blockchain at each node. Leveraging the insight that a sudden drop in computational power can indicate the onset of a partition, we design a formal statistical model that distinguishes between normal and partitioned network behavior. Our method employs a block coloring scheme and a likelihood-ratio test that together enable detection without compromising decentralization. We validate HEMERA through simulations and real-world data: in over one million simulation runs with 144-block windows, it achieves a false positive rate below 0.0001%, and when applied to blockchain data (2012-2025) using 144-block windows it maintains a false positive rate under 2%.

Since the emergence of quantum computing, Grover’s algorithm has been widely studied as a method to attack Proof-of-Work (PoW) blockchains. However, it requires multiple oracle and diffuser iterations, causing high computational overhead and ancilla qubit usage. In this paper, we propose a novel quantum algorithm that efficiently finds valid nonces in PoW-based blockchains without iterative amplification. It introduces a non-unitary quantum operator that directly generates a superposition of valid nonces in one step. We also present an efficient quantum circuit implementation and theoretically prove that our algorithm significantly reduces computational resources compared to conventional Grover-based methods.

Climate change, driven by global warming and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, poses a significant global challenge. International organizations and governments are actively pursuing emission reduction strategies, yet these efforts are often constrained by the direct relationship between emissions and national economic activity. This paper proposes a blockchain-based carbon footprint (CF) management system named?, that leverages data from IoT devices, and security is ensured by zero-knowledge proofs (ZKP) to track and reduce CF at the individual level. Individual data is collected and converted into carbon coin, a hybrid online-offline crypto coin operating on the Pure Chain network. A smart contract, deployed on the Pure Chain network using the Pure Chain coin, governs the proposed system. Additionally, zk-SNARK is applied to implement ZKP for the validity and integrity of the information verification without revealing private information. Based on theoretical models and previous studies on behavior-based carbon reductions, it is expected that the system can achieve up to a 30% reduction in CF per user within the first year.

Objective To explore the amount of practice and progression during task-oriented circuit training (TOCT) in chronic stroke survivors; to test the use of pedometers and observation-based measures in detecting step activity; to verify the possible correlation between step activity and locomotor function improvements.Methods Six community-dwelling chronic stroke survivors underwent 10 TOCT sessions (2 hours/each) over 2 weeks in which they were trained both on a treadmill and on six task-oriented workstations (W1?W6). During the sessions, they wore a piezoelectric pedometer and step activities were recorded. Outcome measures were as follows: % of activities during which pedometers worked properly; pedometer-based measures (total step counts, treadmill steps, workstation steps? total and W2,W3,W5,W6); observation-based measures (number of repetitions in task W1 and W4); walking speed changes measured by the 10-m walking test (10MWT) and walking endurance changes (6-minute walking test) after TOCT.Results During TOCT sessions (n=57), activities were recorded through pedometer-based measures in 4 out of the 6 patients. The total amount of step activity was 5,980.05±1,968.39 steps (54.29% in task-oriented workstations, 37.67% on treadmill, and 8.03% during breaks). Exercise progression was highlighted significantly by observational measures (W1, W4). A positive correlation was observed between increased gait speed and observational stair step repetitions progression (W1) (r=0.91, p=0.01) or pedometer-based tandem exercise step progression (W3) (r=0.98, p=0.01).Conclusion TOCT can be considered a high-intensity, progressive intervention to restore locomotor function in chronic stroke survivors. Pedometer-based measures might help in quantifying TOCT’s volume of practice; however, further investigations are required.

민사소송 분야에서 증명해야 할 사실은 민사사건과 관련된 사실을 말하며, 주로 실체 법 사실과 절차법 사실을 포함한다. 후자는 민사소송의 법률관계가 발생, 변경, 소멸될 수 있는 사실, 즉 소송법상의 사실을 말한다. 비록 당사자의 실체적 권리 및 의무와 직접적으로 관련된 주요 사실과 다르지만, 절차법적 사실은 실체 문제의 재판에 간접적 인 영향을 미칠 수 있다. 증거제출기한이 지난 사실은 절차적 사실에 속한다. 기한이 경과한 입증사실의 주장 및 입증은 기한이 경과한 입증사실이 인정되는지 여부 및 기한 이 경과한 제출된 사건사실을 인정하기 위한 증거로 삼을 수 있는지가 중요하다. 대륙 법계에서 실체법의 요건인 사실의 증명은 일반적으로 ‘높은 개연성’의 증명기준을 충족 해야 하며, 특정 절차적 사항에 대해서는 ‘우월 개연성’의 증명기준을 채택하고, 민사소 송법 및 관련 법률에는 특정 절차적 사항에 대해 ‘우월 개연성’ 증명기준이 적용된다고 명시되어 있다. 중국의 기한을 넘긴 증거제시 사실의 인정 및 증명에 관한 민사소송 사법실무에서는 법원이 기한을 넘긴 증거제시 사실의 성격과 구성요소에 대한 인식이 모호하고, 당사자의 기한을 넘긴 증거제시 및 그 불리한 결과에 대한 충분한 설명이 부족하며, 일부 이의의 이의를 무시하고, 기한을 넘긴 증거제시 사실을 이의인(异议人) 에게 잘못 배분하는 등의 문제가 있다. 이를 위해, 기한을 넘긴 증거제출 사실의 성격과 구성요소를 전면적으로 정리하고 명확히 정의하며, 동시에 신의성실원칙을 엄격히 이 행해야만 기한을 넘긴 증거제출행위를 효과적으로 규제하고, 재판의 실질화를 촉진하 며, 소송 효율성을 높이고 절차의 공정성을 실현하여 당사자의 절차적 권익을 확실히 보장할 수 있다.

In the realm of civil litigation, facts requiring proof refer to those relevant to the civil case, primarily encompassing substantive legal facts and procedural legal facts. The latter pertains to facts that trigger the creation, modification, or termination of legal relationships in civil litigation, i.e., procedural facts under litigation law. Although distinct from primary facts directly affecting parties' substantive rights and obligations, procedural facts may indirectly influence the adjudication of substantive issues. Facts related to belated evidence submission fall within the category of procedural facts. The assertion and proof of such facts determine whether belated evidence submission can be recognized and whether delayed evidence may be admitted for case adjudication. In civil law jurisdictions, the standard of proof for substantive legal facts generally requires a “high probability” threshold, while specific procedural matters adopt a “preponderance of probability” standard, as explicitly prescribed in civil procedure laws and related statutes. In Chinese judicial practice concerning the determination and proof of belated evidence submission, issues persist, including courts' ambiguities in understanding the nature and constitutive elements of belated evidence submission, insufficient explanations to parties regarding the consequences of delayed evidence submission, neglect of objections raised by opposing parties, and erroneous allocation of the burden of proof to objectors. To address these challenges, it is imperative to systematically clarify and define the nature and constitutive elements of belated evidence submission, and rigorously uphold the principle of good faith. These measures will effectively regulate untimely evidence submission, advance the substantive adjudication of cases, enhance litigation efficiency, ensure procedural justice, and thereby safeguard parties' procedural rights and interests.

在民事诉讼领域中，需要证明的事实是指与民事案件有关联的事实，其主要包括实体 法事实和程序法事实。后者指的是能够引起民事诉讼法律关系发生、变更或消灭的事 实，即诉讼法上的事实。虽不同于直接涉及当事人实体权利义务的主要事实，但程序法 事实会对实体问题的裁判产生间接影响。逾期举证事实属于程序性事实。逾期举证事实 的主张及证明事关逾期举证事实能否被认定及逾期提出的证据能否作为认定案件事实的 证据。在大陆法系，实体法要件事实的证明一般需要达到“高度盖然性”的证明标准，而 关于特定的程序性事项采用“优越盖然性”的证明标准，且在民诉法及相关法律中明确规 定了特定的程序性事项适用“优越盖然性”证明标准。在中国有关逾期举证事实的认定及 证明的民事诉讼司法实践中，存在法院对逾期举证事实性质及构成要件的认识模糊、缺 乏对当事人逾期举证及其不利后果的充分释明、忽视部分异议人的异议及将逾期举证事 实的举证责任错误地分配给异议人等问题。为此，唯有全面梳理及清晰界定逾期举证事 实的性质及构成要件，同时严格贯彻诚实信用原则，方可有效规制逾时提出证据的行 为、促进庭审实质化、提高诉讼效率和实现程序公正，进而切实保障当事人的程序权益。

We present a newly developed machine learning based optimized design method for high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnet. Previous optimization design methods required performing thousands to tens of thousands of magnet characteristic calculations repeatedly to evaluate the objective functions and constraints. If the computation time for analyzing magnet characteristics was long, the design process inevitably became very time-consuming. In this research, we introduce a method that uses machine learning regression techniques to achieve similar design performance while significantly reducing computation time. XGBoost algorithm was trained to create a virtual model capable of predicting the actual characteristics of the magnet. By utilizing this predictive model, which allows for much faster calculations, rather than directly computing the characteristics during the optimization process, the design process was significantly enhanced in terms of efficiency. The proposed design method was applied to the design of a 2 T-class HTS magnet, and it was confirmed that similar results to the previous design could be achieved much more quickly.

The practical application of REBCO coated conductor (CC) tapes, vital for energy transmission (e.g., cable application) and highfield magnets (e.g., coil application), necessitates efficient and simple quality assessment procedures. This study introduces a systematic approach to assess the electromechanical properties of REBCO CC tapes under 77 K and self-field conditions. The approach involves customized tensile and bending tests that clarify the critical current (Ic) response of the CC tapes under mechanical loads induced by tension and bending. This study measures the retained Ic values of commercially available GdBCO CC tapes under 250 MPa tensile stress and 40 mm bending diameter. Through experimentation, the study demonstrates the resilience of these tapes and their suitability for applications. By presenting a simplified stress-based analysis and a bending test of the tapes, the study contributes to effective quality assessment methods for the development of practical superconducting products.

중국은 현재 사법실무에 있어 판사가 사실추정을 통하여 판결함으로써 당사자의 이 익을 해치고, 사법공신력을 초래하는 등 사실추정을 통한 재판을 남발하는 사례가 발 생하고 있다. 그 이유는 첫째, 사실추정 규정의 광범위성이 판사에게 사실을 추정할 여지를 제공 하고, 사실추정에 있어 그 요건에 있어서도 구체적인 사실과 일상생활 경험에 대응하 는 개연성의 정도 차이가 매우 크다. 이로 인해 판사가 개연성이 낮은 사실에 대해서도 사실추정을 하여 당사자의 거증책임을 면제할 수 있다. 둘째, 법관의 자질이 높지 않아 사실추정에 대한 이해가 부족하여 사실추정을 오용할 수 있다는 것이다. 실무에서 사 실추정을 잘못한 사례가 많아 독일과 중국 학계에서 표현증명으로 대체하자는 주장이 나오고 있다. 따라서 중국은 판사가 사법권을 남용하여 당사자의 이익을 침해하는 것을 막기 위하 여 판사가 사건의 진실에 대해 확신을 갖도록 하는 표현증명제도를 도입할 필요가 있다.

As an important system in the law of evidence, the primary-face proof gradually developed after the implementation of the German Civil Procedure Law of 1877. Especially after the implementation of the law, difficulties from the thinking mode of legal evidence turns to free proof, also regarded as the premise of the development of the primary-face proof system by theorists. Based on the deep accumulation of theories and legal precedents, and the irreplaceable role of primary-face proof in proof of causality and accountability in judicial practice, the German Civil Procedure Law recognized the primary-face proof in specific cases in 2005. In practice, the German Court of Appeal often used the primary-face proof as a means of correcting the facts determined by lower courts. Therefore, it is of great significance to strengthen the judges' free proof and to relieve the litigants’ difficulty in proving causation and fault. In China’s current judicial practice, there are a large number of cases in which the factual presumption of judging is abused. The judges deliberately use the presumption of fact to damage the interests of litigants, resulting in the lack of judicial credibility. The first reason is that the broadness of the factual presumption gives the space for the judge to operate freely, because the specific known facts required by the factual presumption and the probability correspond with daily life experience is quite different, Judges, by factual presumption, can also exempt the litigants from the responsibility of giving proof in view of the fact that the probability is low; secondly, the quality of the judge is not high, imperfect understanding of the factual presumption leads to misusing of factual presumption. There are a large number of wrongdoings of factual presumption in practice, so there is a claim in both German and Chinese academic circles to replace the factual presumption with primary-face proof. Therefore, China should introduce a system of primary-face proof to make it parallel with the factual presumption. These two systems should be applied according to the strength of the probability, so that judges can form a conviction on the facts of the case, and to prevent the judge from abusing the judicial power and harming the interests of the litigants in order to achieve fairness and justice.

作为证据法上的重要制度，表见证明系经德国1877年民事诉讼法施行后的司法判例 渐次发展而成。尤其是该法实施之后，自法定证据思考模式转向自由心证主义所发生适 应上的困难，更是被理论界视为表见证明制度发展的前提基础。基于学说和判例的深厚 积累，以及表见证明在司法实践中对于因果关系和可归责性的证明发挥着不可替代的作 用，2005年德国民事诉讼法承认了特定情形下的表见证明。实践中，德国上诉法院更是 常常将表见证明作为纠正下级法院的事实认定的修正手段。因此，表见证明在强化法官 心证、纾解当事人关于因果关系及过错的证明困难等方面具有重要意义。 中国目前司法实践中，出现大量滥用事实推定裁判的案件，法官肆意运用事实推定 损害当事人的利益，造成司法公信力缺失等问题。究其原因，一是事实推定规定的宽泛 性给了法官自由操作的空间，因为事实推定要求的具体已知事实和日常生活经验对应的 盖然性强弱差别非常大，法官针对盖然性低的事实也可以通过事实推定免除当事人的举 证责任；二是法官素质不高，对事实推定的理解不透彻，导致其误用事实推定。实务中 存在大量运用事实推定出现错误的案件，所以在德国和中国学界都存在以表见证明代替 事实推定的主张。 因此，中国应当引入表见证明制度，使其与事实推定两轨并行，按事实的盖然性强 弱分别适用这两种制度，使法官对案件事实形成内心确信，防止法官滥用司法权力损害 当事人利益，以期实现公平正义。