Earticle

In many parts of Nigeria, women and girls bear the cost of fetching firewood, a traditional cooking method. The expensive traditional cooking method burns upto 90% wood than necessary. Hence, this study focused on briquette production using residues generated from Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) namely: Irvingia gabonenis husk Vitellaria paradoxa shell and Parkia biglobosa chaff, as suitable and sustainable source for clean cooking. The residue were sourced from Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria. Each material was oven dried (12% MC), grinded, sieved using 2 mm mesh and mixed thoroughly with cooked cassava starch at 10% and 15% binder level and the briquettes were replicated 5 times. The strength properties, energy value and cooking efficiency were carried out using American Standard Test Methods (ASTM). Data were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at (p＜0.05). Results shows that briquette produced from V. paradoxa shell at 15% binder level had the highest density (655.37 g/cm3). Irvingia gabonensis husk briquette exibit highest shatter index at both binder level (96.72% and 96.99%). Likewise, I. gabonensis husk had the highest water resistance at 15% binder level (66.60%). Briquette with lowest ash content (3.40%) and highest calorific value (32.54 MJ/kg1) was found in V. paradoxa shell at 15% binder level. Highest Water Boiling Time of 32 mins was recorded for Parkia biglobosa chaff at 10% binder level. Fuel Burning Rate of I. gabonensis husk and V. paradoxa shell at 15% binder level were higher (0.004 kg/sec), Specific Fuel Consumption of V. paradoxa shell briquette (0.20 kg/L) was highest at 15% binder level. Among the three residues, briquettes produced from V. paradoxa shell at 15% binder level exhibited better performance and as environmentally friendly solution to waste management while offering a renewable energy source.

강릉 강문동 저습지유적에서 토층별로 입수한 유기물 시료(목재 및 패각) 3점 및 토기 편 2점의 절대연대를 측정하였다. 유기물 시료의 방사성탄소 농도 및 현대표준시료 옥살산(NBS SRM4990C)의 방사성탄소의 농도를 측정하고 그 비로부터 시료의 연대를 계산하였다. 토기의 열발광량은 석영입자를 추출하여 고고선량을 계산하였다. 그리고 토기 및 매장 토양의 각 알파계수율, 함량 및 수분함량을 측정하여 년간선량을 계산하였다. 고고선량을 년간선량으로 나누어 열발광연대를 계산하였다. 회갈색 모래층 패각 시료의 연대 범위는 기원후 세기이며, 흑회색 니토층 및 회갈색 모래층의 목재 시료는 모두 기원전 세기의 연대 범위를 나타내었다. 토기의 열발광연대는 각각 BC 170 y 및 BC 210 yr로서 동일 지점에서 입수한 유기물시료의 방사성탄소연대 범위에 포함되어 있음을 알 수 있다. 따라서 동일지역에서 출토된 목재, 패각 및 토기의 연대가 서로 잘 일치하고 있음을 확인하였다. 그러나 열발광연대의 오차범위가 각각 13%, 20%로 커서 정밀도의 개선이 요구된다.

Absolute ages for three pieces of organic materials such as wood and shell were determined with radio-carbon concentrations and two potsherds with thermoluminescence measurements. Radiocarbon contents of each sample were compared with those of modern standard oxalate(NBS SRM4990C) and calculated radiocarbon ages of them. Quartz grains with diameter of were extracted from potsherds and used for measuring the archaeodose. Annual dose were calculated with measuring the alpha count rates and water contents and analysing concentration of both potsherds and soils. Radiocarbon ages of organic materials were in the ranges of BC and Quartz grain techniques for thermoluminescence dating showed 170 BC ud 210 BC respectively. It was found that the results of radiocarbon dating and TL dating were accorded with each other. But the deviations of TL dating have shown 13% and 20% respectively. It need to reduce the deviations.

The unmanned aerial vehicle industry has developed a lot, but the possibility of accidents is increasing due to potential risks. In this study, SHELL models and HFACS were used to analyze unmanned aerial vehicle accidents in the UK and to identify the main causes and characteristics of accidents. The main cause analyzed by the SHELL model was identified as an abnormality in the alarm system. The main cause of the accident analyzed by HFACS was identified as the technical environment. The common cause identified by the SHELL model and HFACS was identified as a mechanical problem of unmanned aerial vehicles. This is due to the lack of accurate information or functionality of the alarm system in the operator interface, which often prevents the operator from responding to sensitive information. Therefore, in order to prevent civil UAV accidents, the stability and reliability of the system must be secured through regular inspections of the UAV system and continuous software updates. In addition, an ergonomic approach considering human interfaces is needed when developing technologies.

The heating & cooling performance of vapor compression heat pump using seawater heat source has been investigated experimentally for fish farm heat supply system. The principal parts of the heat pump systems are compressor, condenser, expansion devices and evaporator. The evaporator and condenser are both heat transfer devices. We used double pipe H/E(CASE-1) and shell&coil H/E(CASE-2) as evaporator, condenser of heat pumps. The experimental results were higher Uvalue 25% of double pipe heat exchanger compared to shell & coil H/E. The COPc is 4.74 and the COPH is 6.18 of the heat pump with shell & coil H/E.

This paper presents the validity and limitation of the thin-shell approach for the analysis of elastic wave propagation in a pipe with nonviscous liquid. The phase velocities calculated by the thin-shell approach were compared with those calculated by the thick-cylinder approach. In contrast to the case of the empty pipe, where only two modes were obtained and the first mode was calculated in a limited frequency range, the results for the liquid-filled pipe exhibits a large number of modes due to the large number of branches of the apparent liquid mass. Several of the lowest modes of the waves in a liquid-filled pipe were calculated for various pipe thicknesses in a low frequency range. The thin-shell approach was valid for a reasonable range of pipe thicknesses.

This study is about the optical properties of InP-based quantum dot nanoparticles depending on their core/shell structure. The need to synthesize non-cadmium-based quantum dot nanoparticles with high quantum efficiency has become necessary due to the harmful effects of the element cadmium. We synthesized three types of quantum dot nanoparticles in 2000ml three-necked flasks by varying the synthesis temperature and time to have the same PL spectra according to the composition of the core and shell. The PL spectra, absolute quantum efficiency, and nanoparticle size were compared and analyzed according to the composition at red emission wavelengths of 614, 616, and 630 nm. InP/ZnSe/ZnS nanoparticles were synthesized with the highest PL-AQY of 94% at 614 μm, and Ga-doped InP/GaP/ZnSe/ZnS nanoparticles were synthesized with the highest PL-AQY of 97% at 616 μm. InZnP/ZnSe/ZnS nanoparticles with alloy cores were able to synthesize quantum dot nanoparticles with a peak PL-AQY of 98% at 630μm.

목적: 본 연구는 율피(Castanea crenata inner shell) 추출물의 천연 항비듬 소재로써의 활용 가능성을 평가하고자 하였다. 이를 위하여 두피 미생물 중 하나로써 비듬의 주요 원인균인 M. furfur를 대상으로 항진균 활성을 분석하고, 항산화능, 세포독성, 항염 활성 및 주성분 분석을 진행하여 기능성과 안전성을 종합적으로 평가하고자 하였다. 방법: 율피를 수거 및 분쇄하고, 추출 용매(열수(80℃), 에탄올(25℃), 메탄올(25℃))에 따라 다르게 적용하여 24시간 동안 추출하였다. M. furfur균주에 대한 항진균 활성은 disc diffusion test를 이용하여 평가하였다. 항산화능 평가를 위한 DPPH 소거능, 총 폴리페놀 함량 및 총 플라보노이드 함량을 분석하였다. HPLC를 이용하여 율피 추출물의 주요 생리활성 성분을 분석하였으며, 이외에도 세포독성 및 항염 활성 평가를 진행하였다. 결과: 열수, 에탄올을 이용한 율피 추출물과 비교하여 메탄올을 이용한 율피 추출물의 DPPH radical 소거능이 높게 나타났다. M.furfur에 대한 항진균 활성 평가에서도 메탄올을 이용한 율피 추출물에서만 특이적으로 나타났으며, 농도의존적으로 증가하였다. 율피 추출물의 RAW 264.7 세포에 대한 독성은 0.8% (v/v) 이하의 농도 범위에서 90% 이상의 세포 생존율을 나타냈고, LPS로 유도된 NO 생성이 유의적으로 억제되어 항염 효과가 확인되었다. 총 폴리페놀 및 플라보노이드 함량 측정 결과, 151.25 μg/g 및 88.75μg/g으로 나타났으며, gallic acid와 quercetin등의 주요 폴리페놀 성분이 확인되었다. 결론: 본 연구를 통하여 율피 추출물은 항진균 및 항산화 활성을 갖는 것을 확인하였다. 따라서, 메탄올을 이용한 율피 추출이 항산화 및 항진균 활성에 효과적이며, 기능성 두피 케어 관련 제품에 활용될 수 있을 것으로 판단된다. 향후 연구로써 율피 추출물이 보유하고 있는 주요 성분과 항진균 활성에 대한 기전 규명 및 임상에 관한 더 구체적인 연구가 필요하다.

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the potential of Castanea crenata inner shell extract as a natural antidandruff agent. Accordingly, we analyzed the antifungal activity of C. crenata inner shell extract against Malassezia furfur as well as its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Methods: The collected C. crenata inner shells were extracted with different solvents: hot water (80℃), ethanol (25℃), and methanol (25℃) for 24 h. The antifungal efficacy of the extracts at various concentrations was assessed via a disc diffusion test. DPPH radical scavenging activity, total polyphenol content, and total flavonoid content were also analyzed. The major bioactive components of the extracts were identified using HPLC. Results: Among the solvents tested, methanol was the most effective for antifungal and antioxidant activities. In particular, the antifungal efficacy of methanolic extracts increased in a concentration-dependent manner, with an inhibition zone≤14.2 mm in diameter. The TPC and TFC of the extracts were 151.25 and 88.7 μg/g, respectively. Gallic acid and quercetin were identified as the main components. In addition, the extracts did not exhibit cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory effects at concentrations<0.8% (v/v). Conclusion: This study confirmed that the extract of C. crenata inner shell possesses notable antifungal and antioxidant activities. Therefore, it has potential as a natural ingredient and as an alternative to synthetic chemicals for manufacturing scalp care products. Further work is needed to investigate the mechanistic relationship between antifungal activity and the profile of bioactive compounds.

目的: 探索栗内皮(Castanea crenata inner shell)提取物作为天然去屑活性成分的应用潜力。为此，以头皮微生 物中导致头屑的主要致病菌之一M. furfur 为对象，分析其抗真菌活性，并通过抗氧化能力、细胞毒性、抗炎活 性及主要成分分析，对其功能性与安全性进行综合评价。方法: 收集并粉碎栗内皮，分别采用不同提取溶剂(热 水(80℃)、乙醇(25℃)、甲醇(25℃))在各自条件下提取24小时。针对M. furfur 菌株的抗真菌活性采用纸片扩散 法(disc diffusion test)进行评价。通过DPPH自由基清除能力、总多酚含量及总黄酮含量测定其抗氧化活性。利 用HPLC分析栗内皮提取物中的主要生理活性成分，并进一步进行细胞毒性与抗炎活性评估。结果: 与热水及乙 醇提取物相比，甲醇提取的栗内皮提取物表现出更高的DPPH自由基清除能力。在针对 M. furfur 的抗真菌活性 实验中，仅甲醇提取物显示出显著活性，且呈浓度依赖性增强。细胞毒性结果显示，在0.8%(v/v)以下浓度范围 内，RAW 264.7细胞的存活率均超过90%；同时，LPS诱导的一氧化氮(NO)生成显著受到抑制，表明其具有抗 炎作用。总多酚与总黄酮含量分别为151.25 μg/g和88.75 μg/g，并检测到包括没食子酸(gallic acid)和槲皮素 (quercetin)在内的主要多酚类成分。结论: 本研究证实栗内皮提取物具有抗真菌及抗氧化活性。其中，甲醇提取 在抗氧化及抗真菌方面效果最佳，显示出在功能性头皮护理产品中的应用潜力。未来仍需进一步阐明其主要活 性成分的作用机制，并开展更深入的临床研究。

As a basic study on the fluid-structure interaction of the shell structure, a theoretical formulation has been suggested on the free vibration of a thin-walled conical frustum shell filled with an ideal fluid, where the shell is assumed to be fixed at both ends. The motion of fluid coupled with the shell is determined by means of the velocity potential flow theory. In order to calculate the normalized natural frequencies that represent the fluid effect on a fluid-coupled system, finite element analyses for a fluid-filled conical frustum shell are carried out. Also, the effect of apex angle on the frequencies is investigated.

The widespread use of thin shell structures has created a need for a systematic method of analysis which can adequately account for arbitrary geometric form. Therefore, the stress analysis of thin shell has been one of the more challenging areas of structural mechanics. The analysis of axisymmetric spherical shell is almost an every day occurrence in many industrial applications. A reliable and accurate finite element analysis procedure for such structures was needed. In general, the shell structures designed according to quasi-static analysis may fail under conditions of dynamic loading. For a more realistic prediction on the load carrying capacity of these shell, in addition to the dynamic effect, consideration should also include other factors such as nonlinearities in both material and geometry since these factors, in different manner, may also affect the magnitude of this capacity. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the dynamic characteristics of spherical Shell. For these purpose, the spherical shell subjected to uniformly distributed step load was analyzed for its large displacements elasto-viscoplastic dynamic response. The results for the dynamic characteristics of spherical shell in the cases under various conditions of base-radius/central height(a/H) and thickness/shell radius(t/R) were summarized as follows: 1. The dynamic characteristics with a/H, 1) As the a/H increases, the amplitude of displacement increased. 2) The values of displacement Dynamic Magnification Factor (DMF) range from 2.9 to 6.3 in the crown of shell and the values of factor in the mid-point of shell range from 1.8 to 2.6. 3) As the a/H increases, the values of DMF in the crown of shell is decreased rapidly but the values of DMF in mid-point of shell is increased gradually. 4) The values of DMF of hoop-stresses range from 3.6 to 6.8 in the crown of shell and the values of factor in the mid-point of shell range from 2.3 to 2.6, the values of DMF of stress were larger than that of displacement. 2. The dynamic characteristics with t/R, 1) With the decrease of thickness of shell decreses, the amplitude of the displacement and the period increased. 2) The values of DMF of the displacement were range from 2.8 to 3.6 in the crown of shell and the values of factor in the mid-point of shell were range from 2.1 to 2.2.

The widespread use of thin shell structures has created a need for a systematic method of analysis which can adequately account for arbitrary geometric form and boundary conditions as well as arbitrary general type of loading. Therefore, the stress and analysis of thin shell has been one of the more challenging areas of structural mechanics. A wide variety of numerical methods have been applied to the governing differential equations for spherical and cylindrical structures with a few results applicable to practice. The analysis of axisymmetric spherical shell is almost an every day occurrence in many industrial applications. A reliable and accurate finite element analysis procedure for such structures was needed. Dynamic loading of structures often causes excursions of stresses well into the inelastic range and the influence of geometry changes on the response is also significant in many cases. Therefore both material and geometric nonlinear effects should be considered. In general, the shell structures designed according to quasi-static analysis may fail under conditions of dynamic loading. For a more realistic prediction on the load carrying capacity of these shell, in addition to the dynamic effect, consideration should also include other factors such as nonlinearities in both material and geometry since these factors, in different manner, may also affect the magnitude of this capacity. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the dynamic characteristics of spherical shell. For these purposes, the spherical shell subjected to uniformly distributed step load was analyzed for its large displacements elasto-viscoplastic static and dynamic response. Geometrically nonlinear behaviour is taken into account using a Total Lagrangian formulation and the material behaviour is assumed to elasto-viscoplastic model highly corresponding to the real behaviour of the material. The results for the dynamic characteristics of spherical shell in the cases under various conditions of base-radius/central height(a/H) and thickness/shell radius(t/R) were summarized as follows : The dynamic characteristics with a/H. 1) AS the a/H increases, the amplitude of displacement in creased. 2) The values of displacement dynamic magnification factor (DMF) were ranges from 2.9 to 6.3 in the crown of shell and the values of factor in the mid-point of shell were ranged from 1.8 to 2.6. 3) As the a/H increases, the values of DMF in the crown of shell is decreased rapidly but the values of DMF in mid-point shell is increased gradually. 4) The values of DMF of hoop-stresses were range from 3.6 to 6.8 in the crown of shell and the values of factor in the mid-point of shell were ranged from 2.3 to 2.6, and the values of DMF of stress were larger than that of displacement. The dynamic characteristics with t/R. 5) With the thickness of shell decreases, the amplitude of the displacement and the period increased. 6) The values of DMF of the displacement were ranged from 2.8 to 3.6 in the crown of shell and the values of factor in the mid-point of shell were ranged from 2.1 to 2.2.

Background: Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is an agricultural byproduct containing alkylphenols that has been shown to favorably change the rumen fermentation pattern only under experimentally fixed feeding conditions. Investigation of CNSL potency in rumen modulation under a variety of feeding regimens, and evidence leading to the understanding of CNSL action are obviously necessary for further CNSL applications. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potency of CNSL for rumen modulation under different dietary conditions, and to visually demonstrate its surfactant action against selected rumen bacteria. Methods: Batch culture studies were carried out using various diets with 5 different forage to concentrate (F:C) ratios (9:1, 7:3, 5:5. 3:7 and 1:9). Strained rumen fluid was diluted with a buffer and incubated with each diet. Gas and short chain fatty acid (SCFA) profiles were characterized after 18 h incubation at 39 °C. Monensin was also evaluated as a reference additive under the same conditions. Four species of rumen bacteria were grown in pure culture and exposed to CNSL to determine their morphological sensitivity to the surfactant action of CNSL. Results: CNSL supplementation decreased total gas production in diets with 5:5 and 3:7 F:C ratios, whereas the F:C ratio alone did not affect any gas production. Methane decrease by CNSL addition was more apparent in diets with 5:5, 3:7, and 1:9 F:C ratios. An interactive effect of CNSL and the F:C ratio was also observed for methane production. CNSL supplementation enhanced propionate production, while total SCFA production was not affected. Monensin decreased methane production but only in a diet with a 1:9 F:C ratio with increased propionate. Studies of pure cultures indicated that CNSL damaged the cell surface of hydrogen- and formate-producing bacteria, but did not change that of propionate-producing bacteria. Conclusion: CNSL can selectively inhibit rumen bacteria through its surfactant action to lead fermentation toward less methane and more propionate production. As CNSL is effective over a wider range of dietary conditions for such modulation of rumen fermentation in comparison with monensin, this new additive candidate might be applied to ruminant animals for various production purposes and at various stages.

This study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of oyster shell extract on the production of pro-inflammatory factors [NO, reactive oxygen species (ROS), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-${\kappa}B$), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2)] and pro-inflammatory cytokines [Interleukin-$1{\beta}$ (IL-$1{\beta}$), Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and TNF-${\alpha}$] in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated Raw 264.7 cells. Cell viability, as measured by the MTT assay, showed that oyster shell extract had no significant cytotoxicity in Raw 264.7 cells. The treatment with oyster shell extract decreased the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species dose dependently and increased antioxidant enzyme activities, such as SOD, catalase, GSH-px in LPS-stimulated macrophage cells. Oyster shell extract significantly suppressed the production of NO and also decreased the expressions of iNOS, COX-2 and NF-${\kappa}B$. Additionally, oyster shell extract significantly inhibited the production of IL-$1{\beta}$, IL-6, and TNF-${\alpha}$ in LPS-stimulated Raw 264.7 cells. Thus, these results showed that the oyster shell extract had an anti-inflammatory effect on LPS-stimulated Raw 264.7 cells.

In this paper, the elastic axisymmetric buckling of a thin, isotropic and simply supported cylindrical shell with an elastic core under axial compression has been analyzed using energy method. The nonlinear strain-displacement relations in general cylindrical coordinates are simplified using Sanders kinematic relations (Sanders, 1963) for axial compression. Equilibrium equations are obtained by using minimum potential energy together with Euler equations applied for potential energy function in cylindrical shell. To acquire stability equation of cylindrical shell with an elastic core, minimum potential energy theory and Trefftz criteria are implemented. Stability and compatibility equations for an imperfect cylindrical shell with an elastic core are also obtained by the energy method, and the buckling analysis of shell is carried out using Galerkin method. Critical load curves versus the aspect ratio are obtained and analyzed for a cylindrical shell with an elastic core. It is concluded that the application of an elastic core increases elastic stability and significantly reduces the weight of cylindrical shells.

In the study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of chitosan and chestnut shell, individually or in combination, as alternatives to sorbate addition on the microbial safety and quality of pork meat batter. We prepared meat batters without an additive (control) and with potassium sorbate 2,000 ppm, chitosan 1%, chestnut shell 1%, and chitosan 0.5% + chestnut shell 0.5% were prepared, respectively, and stored at 4℃ for 7 days. In all storage days, total aerobic bacteria, Pseudomonas spp. and lactic acid bacteria were not detected in the meat batter added with chitosan 0.5% + chestnut shell 0.5%. On storage day 7, the counts of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157:H7 were the lowest in the meat batter added with chitosan 1%, followed by that added with chitosan 0.5% + chestnut shell 0.5% (p < 0.05). Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value of meat batter was lowest with the addition of 1% chestnut shell, whereas the addition of chitosan 0.5% + chestnut shell 0.5% resulted in the next lowest value (p < 0.05). Cooking loss was significantly higher in meat batter added with sorbate, chitosan 1%, and chitosan 0.5% + chestnut shell 0.5%, compared to the control (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the combined addition of chitosan 0.5% and chestnut shell 0.5% to meat batter can be used as a sorbate substitute to prevent microbial growth and changes in quality. However, further studies are required to verify these effects in sausages and to assess additional quality changes for industrial applications.

Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete (RC) structures is performed by using isogeometric Reissner-Mindlin (RM) shell element. The elasto-plastic constitutive model is employed to express the nonlinear behavior of concrete material and the equivalent smeared steel layer is introduced to represent steel reinforcement. The arc-length control method is used to produce the entire load-displacement path of RC structures. Finally, three benchmark tests are carried out to verify the performance of the present shell element. From isogeometric analysis, the present results show a good agreement with experimental results and it is provided as future benchmark test solutions.

Web shells are programs that are written for a specific purpose in Web scripting languages, such as PHP, ASP, ASP.NET, JSP, PERL-CGI, etc. Web shells provide a means to communicate with the server's operating system via the interpreter of the web scripting languages. Hence, web shells can execute OS specific commands over HTTP. Usually, web attacks by malicious users are made by uploading one of these web shells to compromise the target web servers. Though there have been several approaches to detect such malicious web shells, no standard dataset has been built to compare various web shell detection techniques. In this paper, we present a collection of web shell files, WebSHArk 1.0, as a standard dataset for current and future studies in malicious web shell detection. To provide baseline results for future studies and for the improvement of current tools, we also present some benchmark results by scanning the WebSHArk dataset directory with three web shell scanning tools that are publicly available on the Internet. The WebSHArk 1.0 dataset is only available upon request via email to one of the authors, due to security and legal issues.

The ethanolic extract of chestnut (Castanea crenata S. et Z., Fagaceae) inner shell (CISE) and one of its components, ellagic acid (EA), were evaluated for their protective effects against 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazine (DPPH) free radical generation and hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative DNA damage in a mammalian cell line. CISE and EA were shown to possess the free radical scavenging effect against DPPH radical generation, significantly. They were also found to strongly inhibit hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage from Chinese hamster lung (CHL) cell, assessed by single cell gel electrophoresis assay and 8-hydroxy -2'-deoxy guanosine (8-OH-2'dG) assay. Furthermore, topical application of CISE [$12.5\%$(w/w) cream] and ellagic acid [$1.0\%$(w/w) cream] for 14 days potently inhibited malondialdehyde (MDA) formation of mouse dorsal skin (a marker of lipid peroxidation) induced by ultraviolet B exposure. Therefore, CISE and its component, ellagic acid, may be the useful natural antioxidants by scavenging free radicals, inhibition of lipid peroxidation and protecting oxidative DNA damage when topically applied.