Earticle

이 연구는 11-12세기 영국의 앵글로 노르만 왕조 시기에 새로운 수녀원 설립이 급격하게 증가하고 13 세기에 극감하는 것에 대한 요인을 당시의 사회변화에서 찾아보았다. 영국에서 수녀원 건립은 6, 7, 8 세기에 활발하게 이루어졌으나 9, 10세기에 노르만 족의 침입과 통치자의 변화로 새로운 수녀원 건립 이 거의 이루어지지 않고 기존 수녀원의 대부분도 파괴되었다. 그러나 앵글로 노르만 왕조가 정치적 인 안정을 찾으면서 다시 수녀원의 설립이 활발해졌다. 물론 이 시기에 수녀원 건설은 6, 7, 8세기와는 차이점을 보여주고 있다. 이때는 헨리 2세가 많은 영토를 통치하면서 봉건제도가 정착하는 권력이 분 산되는 시기였다. 가장 중요한 특징으로 수녀원 건립의 유력한 후원자가 농경사회를 중심으로 한 지 역의 하위 귀족층과 감독이었다. 그리고 사회적으로 남녀 성비의 불균형인데, 과부와 고아가 많았다 는 것이다. 이시기에 영국에서 봉건제도가 확립되면서 권력이 농촌 경제에 기초한 지역의 하위 귀족층들에게 분 산되었다. 하위 귀족층들은 신앙적인 차원에서 권력의 정통성을 인정받기를 원하였다. 가장 일반적인 신앙심의 표현으로 기증을 통한 수녀원의 후원자가 되는 것이었다. 그리고 당시 귀족 여성들은 불행 한 결혼보다는 안정적인 종교생활에 헌신하였다. 이 연구는 11-12세기에 새로운 수녀원 설립이 증가하는 것을 여성들의 종교성이라는 개인적 차원이 아닌 사회 문화적 요인에서 그 원인을 규명하는 사회학적 방법을 취하고 있다. 연구의 결과로 기존의 학자들의 생각처럼 10세기 이후에 영국사회에서 새로운 수도원이나 수녀원의 건립이 저조하기보다는 앵글로색슨 왕조 때와 마찬가지로 활발하였다는 것이다. 그리고 이러한 활발한 수녀원의 건립은 당시 사회 변화와 밀접한 관계를 지니고 있었다.

Historians of women and Religious life in Medieval Western Europe have mainly researched the thirteenth centuries, beguines and Marianism. As a result, full-length studies on women in religious life are few. This paper’s primarily purpose is to explore the social influence of female monasticism, especially in 11th-12th century England. Instead of focusing on the lives and achievement of religious women, I concentrate on the social impact of the significant increase of female monasteries during the 11th and 12th centuries. Even though the spirituality of religious women is more important than social influence, resources area too limited to infer much about the women’s individual spiritual lives. The main factors of increasing the new nunneries were the gender imbalance and power decentralization based on feudality. The main patrons of endowment for the female religious community were the lower nobilities and bishops. During the period of Henry II’s control, England became socially stable. However around the second half of thirteenth century, the number of female monasteries declined radically as larger cities appeared. The new founding of female monasteries is related to the power decentralization and women’s need as an alternate to marriage.

신성로마제국의 황제 오토 2세와 비잔티움의 테오파노의 결혼식(972)을 통해서 비잔틴 문화가 독일에 수렴되는 과정을 고찰하는 것이 본고의 목적이다. 특히, 테오파노를 중심으로 한 왕실 여성들의 역할과 이들의 상호 협력관계를 살펴보면서, 972년 이후 다양한 비잔틴적 전통이 독일 지역으로 전파되었음을 확인할 수 있었다. 이 과정에서 테오파노는 모국문화를 전파하는 문화 전도사로서의 역할을 적극적으로 수행하였다. 테오파노는 제국의 여성 통치자들과 강한 연대를 형성하였고, 왕실 수녀원은 문화 전파의 발판이 되었다. 성모 마리아와 정교회의 성인을 수호성인으로 선택한 교회와 수도원 설립, 성유물의 수입과 기증, 정교회 수도사와 학자 초빙, 정교회 전례의식 장려, 그리스어 서적 필사, 비잔틴 예술가 초청과 예술작품 제작지원 등의 방법으로 테오파노와 오토 왕실의 여성들은 비잔틴 문화를 서유럽에 이식시켰다. 외래문화에 대한 저항과 거부, 상층 엘리트 중심의 문화 전파 현상에도 불구하고, 모계 중심의 전파로 비잔틴 문화는 왕실의 보호와 지원을 받으면서 지배 계층 내부로 유입되었다. 이 과정에서 테오파노는 현지 주류사회와의 상호작용에도 소극적이지 않았으며, 상이한 문화를 수용하고 자신의 목적에 맞게 융합 내지는 활용하는 절충주의적 태도를 견지하면서, 모국문화와 서유럽 문화를 통합적으로 지향하는 모습을 보여주었다.

Throughout the period of Theophano’s marriage (972) to her death (991), Byzantine culture spread north to Ottonian Germany. By becoming Empress Consort of the Holy Roman Empire, Theophano exerted a butterfly effect on art, architecture, and the diplomatic documents of the chancellery. Furthermore, she did not abandon her relationship with Byzantine religion and culture, and consequently played the role of cultural ambassador. To assist in the transmission of the Byzantine culture, she also used the royal female religious foundations at Gandersheim, Quedlingburg, and Essen, to form a close community with the royal women. Through the translation of Greek literature, the provision of education for the nuns, and the invitation of the orthodox spiritual fathers, she successfully transplanted her native culture into Germany. Even though there was occasionally resistance to foreign cultural influence, the cultural transmission and mediation through the maternal line played a significant role in the diffusion of Byzantine culture among the Ottonian elite. With royal aid and protection, Byzantine culture diffused into the members of the royal family. The Greek-Latin bilingualism created a favorable environment for fostering social cohesion about ‘the other’ or integration with others. Despite criticism from clerical writers, the continuous use of her own language contributed to Theophano’s cultural identity. However, she was not a passive recipient of mutual interaction with the local culture, and maintained a close relationship with both local and Byzantine people to listen to their advice and opinions. Theophano’s grand plan was to adopt, integrate, and compromise the elements of both cultures.

This paper focuses on the relationship between the space and social construction of gender in the medieval English nunneries. Gender is socially created and historically varied force through material culture and space. The medieval English nunnery architecture and location is the teaching method for the nuns and religious women to shape their social identities and roles. Nunnery's use of space was important for religious women. Later medieval nunneries were less common than religious houses for men. Nunneries affiliated to the Benedictine order had been founded later than their male counterparts, and at lower economic scales. In contrast to their male counterparts, nunneries were not endowed for achieving their self-sufficiency. Even though the architecture of nunneries was based on standard monastic forms, nunnery cloisters developed slowly and located at the north of church. Because the nunneries shared their churches with parochial congregation, the number of secular people visiting their precincts was significant. I would argue that these nunneries were established for different purposes than the monastery by a different social group. The nuns might be supported by lower and middle class people for their religious and pious practice. The space of the nunneries-location and architecture- would have taught and disciplined the different social identities and roles of the religious female than the male religious person.

본 논문에서는 수녀원의 인사관리에서 인원을 효율적으로 배치할 수 있는 새로운 의사결정 시스템에 대하여 알아본다. 현재 수녀원의 인원배치는 수 작업으로 처리를 해야하므로 적절한 시기에 적합한 인원을 소임지에 배치하지 못하는 문제점을 가지고 있다. 이를 해결하기 위하여 본 논문에서는 휴리스틱한 방법과 신경망의 PCA(Principal Component Analysis)를 이용한 의사결정 시스템을 설계하고 구현하였다. 이 시스템을 통하여 산출되는 정보는 수녀원 인사관리업무를 보다 체계적일 뿐만 아니라 효율적으로 계획하고 조정하며 통제할 수 있는 기초자료로 활용될 수 있을 것이다.

Min Kyung ChoeThe aim of this study is to interpret the Hamlet-Ophelia relationship in Hamlet. In order to understand Hamlet's cruel treatment of Ophelia in the nunnery scene, it is essential to study first the issues and dilemmas Hamlet is confronting.Hamlet is shocked by a series of events, such as the unnatural death of his father, his mother's hasty and incestuous remarriage to his father's brother Claudius and the ghost's revelation that his father was killed by his uncle Claudius.Hamlet has regarded his mother as the perfect woman - chaste and devoted to his father. Once he perceives that his mother is guilty of lechery in her marriage to Claudius, he thinks that all women are sexually corruptible. He is obsessed with the idea of misogyny and sex nausea. He associates Ophelia with his mother Gertrude and further, identifies her with his mother.It is very embarrassing to read or hear the nunnery scene and the play within the play scene, where Ophelia is treated with apparent cruelty by Hamlet using sexual words and pun. Although Hamlet accuses Ophelia of his mother's apparent sin, his real purpose is to get her out of the disgusting atmosphere of the court an unweeded garden with sexual corruption and evil intrigues, and to catch the conscience of the King under the disguise of antic-disposition. It is noted that Shakespeare puts emphasis on the passive and obedient nature of Ophelia. She is the innocent victim of a patriachal society and a corrupted court, though Hamlet's guilt caused by Gertrude's sexuality is projected to Ophelia.

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본 연구는 토니 모리슨의 『낙원』에서 치유와 전복의 메타포로 나타난 수녀원 여성들의 카니발적 행동양식을 미하일 바흐친의 카니발 주체들의 행동양식에 비춰 논의한다. 이 소설의 여성 작중인물들인 콘솔래타, 메이비스, 지지, 그리고 팰러스는 자율성, 개방성, 이질성, 다양성, 그리고 관능성을 상징하는 바흐친의 카니발적 주제들을 환기시키는 인물들이다. 그들은 인종, 성, 문화, 경험, 그리고 의식의 관점에서 다양한 배경을 가지고 있다. 그런 까닭에, 그들은 ‘8암층’이라 불리는 흑인남성지배사회의 획일적인 인종적·성적 규범에 구속되지 않는다. 그들은 성, 인종, 생각, 그리고 행동에 있어서 개방적이고 포용적이다. 자유분방한 육체적·사회적 교류를 환기시키는 카니발 주체들의 몸들처럼, 그들은 인종적·문화적 다양성의 극복을 통해 지난날의 트라우마를 서로 공유하고 고백할 뿐만 아니라, 서로의 유사성과 차이를 인정하고 상호관계를 만들어간다. 즉 그들은 다양한 행동양식들을 통해 이질성 속의 동질성, 갈등 속의 조화, 모순 속의 일치, 그리고 혼돈 속의 질서라는 역설적·반어적 인간관계를 창조한다. 궁극적으로, 그들의 행동양식은 수녀원을 치유의 낙원으로 만들고, 흑인남성지배사회에 전복적 힘으로 작용한다.

This study aims to discuss the convent females’ modes of behaviors as a metaphor of both subversion to the black male-dominated society and healing of individual traumas in Toni Morrison's Paradise from Michael Bakhtin’s perspectives of carnivalesque subjects. In this novel, the female characters, such as Consolata, Mavis, Gigi, and Pallas are similar to Bakhtin’s carnivalesque subjects who are characteristic of autonomy, openness, heterogeneity, diversity and sensuality. They have various backgrounds in terms of race, culture, experience, and consciousness. Therefore, they don’t belong to the uniform racial-sexual code of the black male-dominated society, the pure-blooded skin group. They are open-minded and inclusive in terms of gender, race, idea, and behavior. They share their past traumas, acknowledge them, recognize similarities and differences between them, and open the interconnections between them. Through these ways, they also create paradoxical and ironical relationships, such as homogeneity in heterogeneity, harmony in conflict, congruity in incongruity, and order in chaos, as do the carnivalesque subjects who echo the figures of unruly bodily and social exchange. Their behavioral modes, finally, make the convent a healing paradise and act as subversive forces against the black male-dominant society.

2017년은 개신교 종교개혁 500주년이 된다. 근래에 일부 역사가들은 신학에 비중을 두는 데서 벗어나 종교개혁이 대중에게 끼친 영향과 그들의역할을 연구하면서 종교개혁의 사회사를 기술하고 있다. 그런 경향을 따라서 여성사학자들도 종교개혁에 대한 여성들의 반응을 탐구하기 시작했다. 종교개혁은 유럽 여성들의 지위에 변화를 가져왔으며, 여성들은 종교개혁의 전파와 확립에 지대한 공헌을 했다. 여성들은 단지 종교개혁의 메시지를 받는 수동적 수혜자가 아니라 종교개혁 운동에 적극적으로 참여했다. 종교개혁 여성들은 실로 개혁된 것이 아니라 개혁을 했다. 종교개혁에 수반된 가장 극적인 변화들 중의 하나는 수녀원의 폐쇄였다. 어떤 역사가들은 수녀원의 해체에 대해서 긍정적인 평가를 한다. 종교개혁은타락하고 성차별적인 수도원 제도로부터 수녀들을 해방시켰으며, 여성과 가정을 정절과 수녀원보다 높은 단계로 상승시켰다는 것이다. 그러나 다른 역사가들은 부정적인 견해를 가진다. 수녀원의 폐쇄는 수녀들의 선택권을 제한했으며, 그들이 가질 수 있었던 제한적인 경력들 중 하나를 부인했고, 여성이지도력을 행사하고 능력을 발휘하는 기회를 박탈했다는 것이다. 수녀들은 그녀들이 겪은 가장 강력한 도전에 대해서 다양한 방식으로반응했다. 독일의 많은 수녀들은 수녀원을 탈출해서 종교개혁의 물결에 참여했다. 그러나 다른 수녀들은 강력한 개혁의 폭풍에 맞서 수녀원 생활을존속시키려고 애썼다. 그리고 또 다른 수녀들은 개혁 세력과 절충해서 개신교로 개종하거나 수녀원 시설을 학교나 병원으로 전환했다. 종교개혁 시대의 여성종교단체에 대한 많은 연구들은 아직도 수녀원의 저항이나 존속보다 해체에 초점을 맞추는 경향이 있지만 사실 많은 수녀들이 수녀원에남았으며 말과 행동으로 저항했다. 독일의 수녀원들은 종교개혁의 격류에도 휩쓸리지 않은 난공불락의 요새였고, 수녀들은 막강하고 정복되지 않는베일 쓴 군대였다.

The year of 2017 marks the quincentennial of the Protestant Reformation. Recently, some historians have moved away from a heavy emphasis on theology to examine the impact of the Reformation on the common people and their role in it, creating a social history of the Reformation. Along with such a tendency historians of women have also begun to explore women's responses to the Reformation. The Reformation effected a change in the status of European women, and women made a significant contribution to the spread and establishment of the Reformation. Women were not simply passive recipients of the Reformation message, but actively participated in the Reformation movement. Women of the Reformation were indeed not reformed, but did reform. One of the most dramatic changes that accompanied the Reformation was the closing of the convent. On the dissolution of the convent, some historians maintain that the Reformation liberated nuns from the corrupt and sexist medieval institution of the cloister, and elevated women and the family to a level above that of chastity and the convent. Other historians, however, assert that the closing of the convent limited nuns' options, denied them one of the only sanctioned careers available, and cut off women's opportunities for exerting leadership and demonstrating capability. Nuns responded in various ways to the striking challenge they had ever experienced. In Germany, many nuns escaped from the convent and joined the waves of the Reformation. But others resisted the fierce reform storm and tried to maintain their convent life. And another group of nuns compromised with the reforming forces by converting to Protestantism or transforming the convent's facilities to school or hospital. Many studies on female religious orders in the era of the Reformation still tends to focus on dissolution rather than resistance or survival, yet the fact is that many of the nuns remained in the convent and fought back in both word and deed. The convent in Germany were the impregnable fortresses which were not swept away by the rush of the Reformation, and their nuns were the powerful and unconquered army with veil.

This paper examines representation of femininity and patriarchal violence in Elizabeth Gaskell's gothic tales focusing on “The Poor Clare” and “The Grey Woman.” In these gothic tales, Gaskell dramatizes the interrelations of patriarchal violence towards the problematic femininity and womanly strength which can constitute sisterhood. Lucy's femininity in “The Poor Clare” is represented as fragmented one in which woman is figured as either demon or angel. The representation of Lucy shows the fear which pervaded middle-class culture that the demonic woman would be the threat to the maintenance of a healthy home. Futhermore, the femininity of two women is refigured in “The Grey Woman” and Gaskell leads the reader to explore the process of gender transformation in the text. These tales offer challenges both to the conventions of nineteenth century fiction and to the ideology of ideal home and femininity in the Victorian period. The supernatural element and textual uncertainties of Gaskell's gothic tales are used as both a critique of and alternative discourse to the dominant narrative of her time. In particular, her narrative strategy is an appealing and dramatic means of looking more closely at the nature of patriarchal violence and its physical and psychological effect on women. Her use of supernatural mode and various narrative strategy is linked to her desire to reveal the underside of the middle-class value system of home, family, and femininity. Her gothic tales explore the cultural conflict which was originated from the contradictory discourses on femininity and leads to reevaluate the source of the danger in the Victorian domestic and sociocultural space. In particular, her stories continually take the Victorian readers to the roots of violence and suffering, and suggest that there is no simple resolution of them.

This paper aims at analyzing two stories in Elizabeth Gaskell’s Gothic Tales, focusing on the struggles of female characters oppressed by patriarchal society. Feminist critics claim that the tales foreground the ways in which females are victimized by males at both domestic and social levels. Especially, Gaskell’s rationalistic ideas, influenced by unitarianism, enable her to investigate the religious communities’ patriarchal control over women. Some of the stories trace the tragic lives of women who face death after they are singled out as ‘witches.’ In “Poor Clare,” although Sir Gisborne’s careless behavior is the main source of evil, Bridget’s ultimate death through starvation attests to her sacrifice as a ‘witch,’ who has the potential to threaten the patriarchal order. “Lois the Witch” depicts the scenes of witch hunting and reveals the ways in which this collective madness victimizes ‘other’ in order to maintain the stability of the religious community. Both of these two stories employ narrators who sympathize with the sacrificed female characters, but they do not show their critical attitude toward the patriarchal religions in an overt manner. Rather, the narrators invite the readers to meditate on the traumatic events and feel the need to construct a healthier community.