Earticle

An earthquake of 5.8 magnitude occurred in Gyeongju on September 2016, and a 5.4 earthquake which is the second largest earthquake ever recorded also occurred in Pohang on November 2017. As the magnitude and frequency of earthquakes increase in Korea, unprecedented seismic damages, land creeping and liquefaction have been observed, and the perception that Korea is a safe zone for earthquake is changing. Recent characteristics of earthquake in Korea are shallow crustal earthquakes, which are difficult to predict and have a large vibration in comparison with seismic scale. We do not have a lot of experience in earthquake, so it is urgent to prepare countermeasures against earthquake-induced sediment disaster. In this study, we measured by the three point method on the slope of mountain where cracks and erosion occurred or possible occurred due to the earthquake occurred in Pohang, 2017. As a result of investigating surface fluctuation focusing on the cracks and stepped area occurring at the earthquake site, only a small erosion, sedimentation and area change were observed in most plots, but no significant correlation was found with a rainfall factor. However, if the above study continues and the data is accumulated, it is possible to identify the rainfall factors affecting the damage area by earthquake, and it can be useful to prepare the non-structural measures such as the landslide warning criteria in earthquake-prone area.

Shallow landslides commonly occur at the soil depth of 0.5-2 m of forested mountain slopes. Tree roots have been recognized to develop to this soil depth; thus, they improve the shear strength in the soils on the surface of sliding. The effects of tree root reinforcement on the soil layer increase the slope stability. The function of tree roots is important because most of the sediment-related disasters in South Korea are mostly caused by shallow landslides on forested mountain areas with shallow soil depth of 0.5-1 m. There were several methods for estimating the shear strength of forested mountain areas, such as measuring the tensile resistance of tree roots and using cohesion values in soils of forest and bare land for calculating the root cohesion. In this study, we applied the soil cohesion provided by roots through field survey on the forested mountain slopes in the locality of Mt. Daeryong to the shallow landslide stability (SHALSTAB) model. As a result, we could predict the source areas of sediment-related disasters according to rainfall conditions.

The boreal forest, with large tracts of unmanaged forests and low human impacts, is critical for the stability of global ecosystems. However, the boreal regions are subject to extensive ecosystem shifting, thinning and even loss under the climate changes and human activities, especially with the increasing of global warming. How to cope with the trend is extremely urgent. To illustrate responds of future populations of forest trees to climate change, it is essential to uncover past and present signatures of molecular adaptation in their genomes. Ecological epigenetics, as an interdisciplinary mainly answering how species, especially perennial, adapt to environmental changes epigenetically, is an important approach to detect the epigenetic mechanisms of boreal forest plants adapting to climate changes. Here, we will report the recent results about DNA methylation involved in environmental adaptation of birch, the pioneered trees of boreal forest.

Genomic Selection (GS) is one of the accelerating breeding methods. With the advent of high throughput molecular technology, numerous molecular markers distributed throughout the whole genome can be developed to characterize many genetic entries involving new perspectives in methodology of selection. In tree breeding the GS could significantly reduce the cost of genetic improvement schemes by limiting the size and number of field experiments. In this study, we used 5,228 trees of 46 half-sib F1 families from 6 environments in Korea and we got 97,647 SNPs via GBS (Genotyping by Sequencing). And then, we designed the high-resolution DNA chip (200K chip) to validate whole SNPs. Finally, we selected and produced the 50K SNPs chip for genotyping of Korean red pine trees. Now, we are preparing to analyze 4,412 trees which are confirmed the pedigree. In order to successfully performed GS, not only the genetic analysis of trees but also accurate phenotypic analysis is very important. Here, we present a novel approach to automatically measurement of tree phenotypes using drone and ground-based scanner. The actual utility of this scanner depends largely on the efficacy of point cloud data (PCD) analysis. The quantified data of each tree was validated using laborious measurements. The results showed that the individual tree growth was accurately reproduced using our method from three dimension registered scans, with a relative deviation of less than 5%. Therefore, we want to apply this method of phenotype analysis for accelerating breeding and management of large-scale progeny test site.

Pine wilt disease (PWD) has recently caused substantial pine tree losses in South Korea. PWD is considered a severe problem due to the importance of pine trees to Korean people, so this problem must be handled appropriately. Previously, we examined the history of PWD and found that it had already spread to some regions of South Korea; these became our study area. Early detection of PWD is required. We used drone remote sensing techniques to detect trees with similar symptoms to trees infected with PWD. Drone remote sensing was employed because it yields high-quality images and can easily reach the locations of pine trees. To differentiate healthy pine trees from those with PWD, we produced a land cover (LC) map from drone images collected from the villages of Anbi and Wonchang by classifying them using several methods, i.e., a pixel-based and object-based image analysis (OBIA). Furthermore, compared the accuracy of two types of global positioning system (GPS) data, collected using drone and hand-held devices, for identifying the locations of trees with PWD. We then divided the drone images into six LC classes for each study area and found that the object-based classification was more accurate than the pixel-based classification at classifying trees with PWD. In terms of the GPS data, we used two type of hand-held GPS device. GPS device 1 is corrected, while the GPS device 2 is uncorrected device. The data collected from hand-held GPS device 1 was better than those collected using hand-held GPS device 2 in Wonchang. However, in Anbi, we obtained better results from GPS device 2 than from GPS device 1. In Anbi, the error in the data from GPS device 1 was 7.08 meters, while that of the GPS device 2 data was 0.14 meters. In conclusion, object-based classification is superior to the pixel-based classification, even both method can distinguish between healthy trees and those with PWD based on LC data. On the other hand, there were some differences between the hand-held and drone GPS datasets from both areas.

Korean pine is the most important high quality timber and economic fruit forest tree species in Northeast China. How to treat the issue about the cultivation of Korean pine plantation is directly related to the economic development and the safety of wood production in northeast forest region. The prospect and significance, the cultivation model, genetic improvement, propagation methods, site selection, density control, tree form control, insect pests as well as policy control of the cultivation of Korean pine plantation were analyzed and discussed based on current forestry situation. It provided reference for the cultivation of Korean pine plantation in Northeast China.

Regional variations in extreme weather events, such as droughts, is expected to increase and they will have significant impacts on forest ecosystem carbon cycles. In particular, the frequency of spring droughts has been increasing in Korea, and the effects of drought on carbon balance in forests may vary depending on the presence of leaves during spring droughts. In this study, a total of 4 years from 2015 to 2018, net ecosystem production (NEP) of evergreen Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and nearby oak dominant deciduous forests were examined using eddy-covariance systems. As a result, the intensity of drought at the study site weakened in the order of 2015, 2017, and 2016, and the drought ended in 2018. In deciduous forests, the annual NEP during the growing season was negatively correlated with the intensity of drought (p-value <0.001, R2 = 0.99) and the recovery index was 1.34 ± 0.13. On the other hand in Korean pine forests, the annual NEP in 2017 was the lowest throughout the study period and the recovery index was 1.16 ± 0.10. This caused by severe drought from the fall of 2016 to the spring of 2017, and during this period, the moisture content of the soil of Korean pine stand was lower than that of deciduous broadleaved forest due to the more evaporation and canopy interception during the winter and early spring. In addition, the recovery of NEP after the drought was slower in Korean pine than deciduous forests due to the legacy effect of extreme moisture stress. Our study could provide useful information for sustainable forest management, especially considering the increase of forest damage caused by climate change including drought.

This study was carried out to analyze the height growth of Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora), Korean white pine (Pinus koraiensis), and Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi), which are the major tree species in South Korea. Study area was targeted on the region of Gangwon and North Gyeongsang provinces, and factors of stand density, forest stand, and site were collected through the field investigation and spatial data. The factors affecting the height growth were analyzed through statistical and spatial analysis of the collected data. To figure out the effect of stand density on height growth, thinning intensity, the number of trees, and stand basal area were analyzed, and it was found that these factors did not affect height growth. Also, age, DBH, and crown width were analyzed to figure out the effect of forest stand investigation, and scatter plots were displayed and a correlation analysis was applied for checking the characteristic of height growth. As a result, correlation coefficients of age, DBH, crown width with height growth were all high. Site factor was analyzed through Analysis of Variance and correlation analysis by dividing into the aspect, elevation, slope, and topography. Topography was analyzed by classifying into ridge and valley. As a result, height growth was affected by aspect and elevation, but was not affected by slope. Ridge distance was a positive correlation to height growth, and so height growth have a tendency to increase as a tree moves away from ridge. Valley distance was a negative correlation to height growth, and so height growth have a tendency to decrease as a tree moves away from valley. This means site factors influence height growth.

This study is about statistical analysis for DBH in species of major trees using in thinning out trees data. Pine forests (Eastern Forest Service) used the DBH data for six years from 2012 to 2018. And pine forests (Southern Forest Service) used the DBH data for three years from 2015 to 2018. And nut pine forests (Northern Forest Service) used the DBH data for six years from 2012 to 2018. Lastly, larch forests (Eastern Forest Service, Northern Forest Service) used the DBH data for six years from 2013 to 2019. We take growth of the DBH of each species for response variable, and degree of thinning and level of trees, age-class (of trees) for the covariates. We focus on comparing the difference of the DBH growth according to each covariates. We use ANOVA for analysis of the difference in the amount of growth in DBH, Tukey's multiple comparisons for post analysis, and regression trees for analysis of a major effect on the growth of DBH. We get some results that the effects of the thinning increase the growth of DBH and there is a difference in the growth of trees according to the level of trees and age-class.

The study was conducted to verify application developed an Automatic Forest Resource Investigation Program (AFRIP) of the Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) for accuracy, speed and effectiveness of forest resource investigation. We set up study plot(plot size 30m × 30m) and investigated sample plot survey. Simultaneously, compared and analyzed to expert survey and terrestrial laser scanner Study site located Daegwallyeong, Gangneung city, Gwangwondo with Pinus densifora stand, 10 class of Age, 51.8cm of DBH and 22.6m of tree height. The results of analysis are 51.8cm of average DBH and 22.6m of tree height in expert survey, 50.9cm and 23.0m in Terrestrial Laser Scanning(TLS) and 51.6cm and 23.1m in developed automatic analyzing program of TLS. The deviation of measurement were 0.9cm and 0.2cm in DBH and –0.4cm and –0.5cm among expert survey, Terrestrial Laser Scanning(TLS) and automatic 3D analyzing program in measurement of DBH and tree height, there were no significant difference among three measurements. And it taken measuring data accurately and rapidly in forest survey by TLS in results of this study. Especially the applied automatic program in this study, the TLS showed precise measurements of measured DBH and height to the extent to which little difference was found between the outcomes by expert. Hence, it is expected to be applied with efficiency on the forest inventory spot.

The 6th National Forest Inventory and Forest Health Monitoring were conducted from 2011 to 2015. The result shows that the total forest area is 6,355 thousand ha. It is a decrease of 36 thousand ha compared with since 2010. The regional average growing stock is the highest in Gangwon-do and the lowest in Jeollanam-do. Conifer forest is the dominant forest type representing 36.9% (2,339 thousand ha) of all forest area. The percentage of broadleaf forest area and mixed forest area are 32.0% and 36.9%, respectively. The growing stock is the highest in conifer forest (44%). Especially, 82% of the growing stock is aged over 31 years. The area of conifer forest is a 9.4% decrease and broadleaf forest is a 18% increase. About 67% of total forest presents healthy condition. Total species of woody plant are 377 and Gangwon-do has the most various species. Soil acidity ranges from pH 4.5 to 5.5.

Forest inventory is based on the sampling methods which estimates the population statistic in terms of calculating stand volumes, and so the researches on cost-effective, precise, and convenient method of computing stand volumes are still important issues in South Korea. The aims of this study were to analyze the applicability of point sampling methods by comparing the complete enumeration and square plot sampling and to figure out the number of points per ha for increasing the precision with regard to the density and percentage of sample points. Study area was 9.25 ha with two sub-compartment (4.3 ha and 4.85 ha) and mainly covered by Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carriere) and natural deciduous forests, located in the research forest of Kangwon National University. Point sampling was carried out with 2 and 4 basal area factor (BAF) and the number of points were 134, which were sampled in the grid unit of 30 m × 30 m. Square plots were sampled with 21 plots in the grid unit of 20 m × 20 m. The stand basal area was 22.9 m2/ha and the stand density was 507 trees/ha in complete enumeration. These statistics were similar to the results of using point sampling: 21.1 m2/ha for stand basal area and 509 trees/ha for stand density. However, it was quite different from the results of using square plots: 38.9 m2/ha for stand basal area and 700 trees/ha for stand density. To analyze the density and percentage of point sampling, the number of plots were categorized into five groups based on the 134 plots (100%): 10 plots (7.5%), 20 plots (14.9%), 40 plots (29.9%), 60 plots (44.8%), 100 plots (74.6%). As a result of analyzing the basal area and stand density randomly, the difference occurred when 10 to 20 plots were used, but there was no large difference between 40 and 100 plots. Assuming that the area of forest inventory which conducts in South Korea is generally 5 to 30 ha, the number of sampling points in this study were different from that in the previous studies, and thus, it is considered to be used for the practical use.

This study was carried out to figure out the competition index of major coniferous species, Pinus densiflora, Pinus koraiensis, and Larix kaempferi, in Korea. As a study on the competition index, the optimal model was selected and the characteristics of the competition index were evaluated according to the stand conditions. The optimal competition index model was selected as the best method of correlation between the competition index and the periodic annual increment of basal area according to various competition selection methods and distance-dependent competition index models. For the competition model, models were used in this study as follows: Lorimer, Martin-EK, Braathe, Heygi, Daniels, modified Daniels. The competition tree selection method was based on the basal area and the angle method using tree height or crown height. As a result of characterizing the calculated competition index according to thinning intensity and tree density by species, the stronger the thinning intensity, the lower the competition index, the lower the competition index. The competitive index of each species through the model suggested in this study was used as an explanatory variable in the development of individual growth model of P. densiflora, P. koraiensis, and L. kaempferi in Korea.

Wet web strength or initial wet web strength is different with the wet strength of paper since it measures the strength of wet web before a sheet is dried. The wet web involves the web on forming section, wet pressing section, and initial part of drying section, whose dryness covers from approximately 10% during the sheet formation up to 60% in the first dryer group. Due to the weak nature of the wet web, the wet web strength of paper is an important property for the runnability and the production efficiency of a paper machine. Wet web strength of nitrocellulose (NC) – softwood bleached kraft pulp (SwBKP) sheet is important for the runnability and the production efficiency of combustible cartridge case (CCC). In this study, the wet web strength of NC-SwBKP sheet was improved with the pre-mixed complexes of polyamideamine-epichlorohydrin (PAE) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The effects of the mixing ratio between PAE and PVA, the added amount of the complexes, and the type of PVA were investigated. It was found that the addition of PAE or PAE-PVA complexes increased wet web tensile strength and dry strength of NC-SwBKP sheets. Especially, a small portion of addition of PVA, i.e., about 5% to 50% of PVA with 90% to 95% PAE, was effective for increasing wet web strength and dry strength such as tensile strength and compressive strength. In addition, in order to improve the wet web tensile strength, the PVA with a higher degree of saponification and with a higher molecular weight has to be chosen for the PAE-PVA pre-mixed complexes.

Prunus yedoensis is a highly promising species as ornamental tree. We investigated the in vitro culture conditions for mass propagation of some superior individuals selected from the natural habitat, Jeju. The bioreactor system is one of the in vitro tissue culture methods which has the advantage of improving propagation efficiency. In order to apply the bioreactor in in vitro culture system, we tested different culture media of liquid culture. The explants were cultured in MS medium with controls(hormone-free), BA, GA3, only or BA and GA₃respectively and the growth were measured every week till 4 weeks of culture. The growth parameters in each treatment were increased rapidly until second week of culture in control and GA3, single treatment and third week in BA single and combination of BA and GA3. As the culture period gets longer, in vitro shoots showed a adverse effect such as necrosis, leaf falling, and decreased growth rate in all treatments. Especially the shoots grown in control became hyperhydrated and abnormal morphology from second week of culture. Shoots in BA and BA+GA₃treatment continued to grow up to 4 weeks, but their growth rate rapidly decreased after 3 weeks of culture. Therefore, the liquid cultivation of P. yedoensis was suitable for the mixed treatment of BA and GA₃and it is appropriate to adjust the culture period for the efficient production.

Triterpenes, consisting of six isoprene units, are one of the largest classes of natural compounds in plants. The genus Taraxacum is in the family Asteraceae and is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. Various triterpenes, especially taraxerol and taraxasterol, are present in Taraxacum plants. Triterpene biosynthesis occurs through the action of oxidosqualene cyclase(OSC), which generates various types of triterpenes from 2,3-oxidosqualene after the rearrangement of the triterpene skeleton. However, no functional characterization of the OSC genes involved in triterpene biosynthesis, except for a lupeol synthase in Taraxacum officinale, has been performed. Taraxacum coreanum, or Korean dandelion, grows in Korea and China. Putative OSC genes in T. coreanum plants were isolated by transcriptome analysis, and four of these (TcOSC1, TcOSC2, TcOSC3 and TcOSC4) were functionally characterized by heterologous expression in yeast. Both TcOSC1 and TcOSC2 were closely related to dammarenediol-II synthases. TcOSC3 and TcOSC4 were strongly grouped with β-amyrin synthases. Functional analysis revealed that TcOSC1 produced several triterpenes, including taraxasterol; Ψ-taraxasterol; α-, β- and δ- amyrin; and dammarenediol-II. TcOSC2 catalyzed the production of bauerenol and another unknown triterpene, TcOSC3 catalyzed the production of β-amyrin. TcOSC4 catalyzed the production of taraxerol. Moreover, we identified taraxasterol, Ψ-taraxasterol, taraxerol, lupeol, δ-amyrin, α-amyrin, β-amyrin and bauerenol in the roots and leaves of T. coreanum. Our results suggest that TcOSC1, TcOSC2, TcOSC3 and TcOSC4 are key triterpene biosynthetic enzymes in T. coreanum. These enzymes are novel triterpene synthases involved in the production of taraxasterol, bauerenol and taraxerol.

The lingnocellulose was pre-treated by alkaline-peroxide treatment with 12% hydrogen peroxide solution. The holocellulose was prepared by Wise method, and the pure cellulose was obtained from the obtained holocellulose by 5% KOH treatment. Lignocellulose nanofibril (LCNF), holocellulose nanofibril (HCNF), and pure cellulose nanofibril (PCNF) were prepared by wet-disk milling and high-pressure homogenizing from the lignocellulose, holocellulose, and pure cellulose. Filament fibers were obtained by wet-spinning with the 3.5wt% CNF suspensions with different chemical composition. The CNF suspensions were wet-spun in tert-butanol and acetone at 5, 10, and 20 ml/min of spinning rate though the needle of 0.2, 0.3mm. The defibrillation efficiency was improved when the lignin and hemicellulose was removed, and smaller fibers with diameters in the order of PCNF > HCNF > LCNF were produced. The diameter of wet-spun fibers were in the range of 200-300 ㎛. The tensile strength of the wet-spun fibers was higher in order of HCNF > PCNF > LCNF. In all samples, the tensile strength was increased as the spinning rate was increased from 10 ml/min to 30 ml/min. The Orientation index was approximately 0.62.

In this study, lignin was isolated by ionic liquid (IL) treatment from lignocellulosic biomass (Quercus mongolica), and the characteristics of the obtained lignin were investigated. The wood powder was loaded in ILs ([EMIM]Ac, [AMIM]Cl, [BMIM]Cl, [HMIM]Cl) to a 15wt% concentration, and then the reaction was conducted at 140 °C for 2h. The reactant was vacuum-filtrated, and the residue was washed using an acetone/distilled water (1/1, v/v) solution. The filtrate was evaporated using an evaporator to remove the acetone in the filtrate. Next, the filtrate was added in distilled water (2L), and then the pH of the filtrate was adjusted to pH 2 using a HCl solution to precipitate IL-isolated lignin (ILL). The yields of ILL in [EMIM]Ac, [AMIM]Cl, [BMIM]Cl and [HMIM]Cl were 5.28%, 1.66%, 1.55%, and 1.52%, respectively. As the reaction temperature in [EMIM]Ac was increased, the yield of ILL and soluble fraction were increased. Molecular weights of ILLs were 4388, 2657, 2260, and 2660(g/mol) for [EMIM]Ac, [AMIM]Cl, [BMIM]Cl and [HMIM]Cl, respectively. The hydroxyl group content of the ILL by [EMIM]Ac was 2.58 mmol/g.

Dahurian larch (Larix gmelini (Rupr.) Kuzen.) is an indigenous species in Korea. Most of Dahurian larch is growing in the alpine area of mid and northern lands in Korean peninsula. In addition, Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carrière), which is similar to Dahurian larch in shape, was widely planted throughout the Korea in the 1970s as part of the forestation project and is now facing the age for harvesting. So it needs to be evaluated the wood qualities for effective utilization of both species as a timber resource. Until now, there is still lack information on the wood quality of Dahurian larch. Therefore, in this study, the anatomical, physical, and mechanical characteristics of Dahurian larch and Japanese larch were investigated for giving effective utilization indicators of both species. As a result of visual observation, both species show similar properties such as distinction between heartwood and sapwood and abrupt transition from earlywood to latewood. Vice versa, few differences were found on anatomical aspect between Dahurian larch and Japanese larch. At first, tracheid length of Japanese larch was longer than that of Dahurian larch. And second one is arrangement of bordered pit frequently showed 2 low in Dahurian larch and 1 low in Japanese larch. Regarding to density of heartwood and sapwood, Dahurian larch was higher than that of Japanese larch. In case of mechanical investigation, Dahurian larch showed higher axial compressive strength and shear strength than Japanese larch. Lastly, the extractive content of Dahurian larch was about 2.5 times higher than that of Japanese larch. Therefore, the results of this study could be used for efficient utilization indicators of Dahurian larch and Japanese larch.

The anatomical characteristics of the ten Indonesian wood species (Gmelina, Albizia, Mangium, Durian, Gandaria, Jengkol, Kupa, Mangga, Nanaka and Rambutan) were investigated by optical microscopy. All the species were diffuse-porous with solitary and radial pore multiple. In Mangium, however, tangential pore multiple was observed as well. Tangential diameter of pore was larger than that of radial one except for Albizia and Nangka. Nangka showed the largest tangential diameter of pore among the species. Vessel number per mm2 of Mangium, Gandaria and Kupa was higher than that of the other species. Especially Kupa showed highest vessel number. The tangential width of axial parenchyma cell in Gmelina, Mangium, Kupa and Mangga was larger than that of wood fiber, while the other species showed the opposite trend. Mangium was the largest in tangential width of axial parenchyma cell. Rays were homocellular composed only of procumbent cell in Gmelina, Albizia and Rambutan. Heterocellular rays composed of procumbent cells in the body and one row of upright and/or square in the margin are observed in Gandaria. Mangium, Durian, Jengkol, Kupa, Mangga and Nangka body showed heterocellular rays composed of procumbent cells in the body and mostly 1∼2 rows of upright and/or square cells in the margin. Crystals occurred in Durian, Gandaria, Jengkol, Albizia, Mangga and Rambutan and silica in Albizia and Mangga.

Thermal therapy using charcoal kiln must be giving a revitalization to the charcoal industry, which is proposed to raise the competitiveness of the domestic charcoal industry. However, using traditional charcoal kiln for thermal therapy has problems such as safety and public health. In addition, due to the lack of a standard model of the modified charcoal kiln for thermal therapy that has proven the performance of the charcoal is low intention to improve. Therefore, we developed a modified kiln for both thermal therapy and charcoal production. The design of the modified kiln for thermal therapy focused on cleanliness, safety, and a production of good quality charcoal. To solve the above-mentioned problems, entrance at the modified kiln were separated for thermal therapy and charcoal production. The charcoal kiln was manufactured by ceramic bricks, red clay, and red bricks for increasing the emission of far-infrared rays. In order to reduce a fine dust, the new fine dust collector was installed with added waste-heat circulation. Additionally, a barrier wall designed for noxious gases was laid out between the adjoining charcoal kilns for thermal therapy. Far-infrared emissivity and radiation energy values of the ceramic bricks were higher than those of red clay and red bricks, and the values in all of the materials decreased with increasing temperature. In addition, both harmful substances and fine dust content in the modified charcoal kiln met the standards of the Ministry of Environment Clean Air Conservation Act in Korea. The physical characteristics and proximate analysis of charcoal produced from the thermal therapy kiln measured for one year every two to three month. There were no noticeable differences in the monthly charcoal characteristics prepared from the thermal kiln, and the charcoal characteristics also met the reference values of the Korea Forest Service.

In this study, the deforestation and forest degradation areas in Paraguay have been obtained using a land cover map (LCM) and a tree cover map (TCM) to estimate the CO2 potential reduction and the strength of occurrence was evaluated by using the geostatistical technique. The priority of candidate lands for REDD+ project was selected by applying a multiple criteria decision-making method. This method was used to select the regions having high CO2 potential reduction for the deforestation and forest degradation areas. The areas of deforestation and forest degradation from 2000 to 2015 were 2,517,633ha and 107,891ha respectively. By adminleve 2, General Eugenio A. Garay had the highest among the area of deforestation with 361,674ha while Villa Ygatimi had the highest in the area of forest degradation with 12,949ha AHP importance analysis showed that the business was 0.52 (0.37 for Ratio of Deforestation area, 0.35 for Ratio of Forest degradation area, 0.28 for CO₂ potential reduction), and Topography was 0.23 (0.40 for height from surface, 0.29 for the slope and 0.31 for the distance from water area) while the Accessibility was 0.25 (0.56 for the distance from road, 0.56 for the distance from settlement area and 0.19 for the distance from Capital). Central and the water body were selected as the preferred locations for the REDD+ candidate region for the deforestation and forest degradation.

This study detected land use change using Landsat satellite image and calculated landscape index to confirm fragmentation of forest land. The land cover classification items were classified into forest land, cropland, grassland, wetlands, and settlements by referring to IPCC guidelines, and the land cover classification was used by object-based classification technique. The landscape structure analysis of land cover change was performed using five landscape index (NumP, MPS, TD, ED, AWMSI). The optimal weights for object-based classification were scale 7, Shape 0.4, Color 0.6, Compactness 0.5, Smoothness 0.5. The change of land cover was increased in the settlement area in 2009 compared to 1989 and decreased in cropland and forest land. The change of landscape index decreased NumP of cropland and forest land in 2009 compared to 1989, but TD and ED increased. This is because the settlement increased, and the cropland and forest land decreased and fragmentation progressed. In conclusion, object analysis is an effective method to confirm change detection and fragmentation, and it is expected to be used for the cause analysis of forest land fragmentation in the future.

Natural rubber (NR) based composites reinforced with cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were prepared using CNFs with different degrees of fibrillation produced by mechanical fibrillation of softwood bleached kraft pulp, and the reinforcing effect of CNFs on NR was studied. The fiber diameter distributions and fiber morphologies of CNFs were estimated by differential centrifugal sedimentation and characterized. To clarify the reinforcing effect of CNFs, NR based composites were reinforced with low amounts of CNFs (5 phr). Although the low-fibrillated CNFs had a small reinforcing effect on NR, the pulling-out of medium-fibrillated CNFs was suppressed, and mechanical properties were improved as well as a decrease in the elongation at break. Meanwhile, the high-fibrillated CNFs improved the tensile strength without decreasing the elongation, although their initial moduli were lower than those of the medium-fibrillated CNFs. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy imaging of fractured surfaces of NR based composites indicated that the branching fibrillated structure of the medium-fibrillated CNFs affected high enhancement of the initial modulus, and the network formed by the high-fibrillated CNFs were involved in improvement of the tensile strength without compromising viscoelastic properties. It can be concluded that the mechanical properties of the NR reinforced with CNFs were determined by the morphologies of CNFs.

Oxidation sensitive microparticles were obtained through the cross-linking of TEMPO-modified cellulose nanofiber (TM CNF) and cysteamine (CA) by spray drying. On the photos of SEM micrographs, they showed that microparticles (MPs) were flat wrinkled balls-like and the size was less than 10 μm, and with the increase of CA content, the MPs became more aggregated. The signals of TM CNF which were found by the EDS spectrum appeared along with the signals of CA in MPs. In FTIR spectrum, MPs contained both TM CNF and CA peaks, and after the treatment of H2O2, the thiol groups of CA were oxidized according to the appearance of S-S signal. The melting point of the MPs which contained CA was below the melting point of free CA could be concluded by DSC analysis. The size of MPs determined by laser diffraction method was 12.1 to 13.8, it was larger than the size observed on the SEM micrographs. H2O2 effectively promoted the release of FITC-dextran from MPs, which was due to the molecular reorientation of CA after oxidation.

Lignin/polyaniline (Lignin/PANI) composites were synthesized by chemical polymerization using aniline with Kraft lignin. The composites and raw materials were used as adsorbents to remove hexavalent chromium (Cr(Ⅵ)). The Cr removal efficiency of lignin was very low. However, the Cr removal efficiency of lignin/PANI composite was higher than that of lignin. When the composite was used as an adsorbent, lignin and polyaniline (PANI) removed Cr(Ⅲ). Furthermore, the PANI reduced Cr(Ⅵ) after reducing Cr(Ⅵ) to Cr(Ⅲ) by the PANI amine groups, which resulted in the efficient Cr removal. The Cr removal efficiency of the composite considerably decreased with a decrease of dosage, comparing with pure PANI. However, PANI_L4 (lignin-to-PANI ratio of 1:1) showed a excellent Cr removal efficiency similar to pure PANI. In all composites, the PANI particles were observed around the surface of the lignin. The interaction between the PANI amine group and the lignin hydroxyl group was resulted in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyses.

Reversible aggregation and dissociation of chitosan (CS)-coated nanoparticles (NPs) including phloretin (Phl) after intravenous injection were elucidated to inhibit lung metastasis of melanoma in this study. Phl was encapsulated in poly(D,L-lactide-coglycolide) (PLGA) NPs as an anticancer agent, and CS was adsorbed onto the exterior surfaces of the Phl-loaded PLGA NPs (PLGA/Phl NPs). PLGA/Phl NPs (mean diameter: 194 nm; polydispersity index: 0.03; zeta potential: –37.9 mV; drug encapsulation efficiency: 79%), and CS-coated PLGA/Phl NPs (CS–PLGA/Phl NPs, mean diameter: 342 nm; polydispersity index: 0.19; zeta potential: 23.3 mV; drug encapsulation efficiency: 93%) were successfully fabricated. The deposition of the CS layers in the external surfaces of the CS–PLGA/Phl NPs was evaluated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. PLGA/Phl NPs maintained their initial particle size in serum albumin, while CS–PLGA/Phl NPs exhibited the formation of micro-sized aggregates and easily disassembled into each NP by extrinsic energy. Sustained Phl release pattern from CS–PLGA/Phl NPs and equivalent antiproliferation potential of the Phl-loaded NPs to that of Phl in melanoma (B16F10) cells were confirmed. After multiple injection of designed NPs in lung metastasis mouse models of melanoma, CS– PLGA/Phl NPs group presented significantly lower lung weight and fewer metastasis foci than PLGA/Phl NPs group (p < 0.05). All these findings suggest that the reversible aggregation and dissociation mechanism of NPs can be easily applied to the therapy of lung metastasis of melanoma.

Hyaluronic acid-D-α-tocopherol succinate-(4-carboxybutyl)triphenyl phosphonium bromide (HA-TS-TPP)-based nanoparticles (NPs) aiming at CD44 receptor and sequential mitochondria targeting were designed for the delivery of lapatinib (LPT) to triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Although LPT is known as one of the dual tyrosine kinase inhibitors targeting for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and human EGFR2 (HER2), TNBC cells frequently have EGFR (+) and HER2 (-) profiles. Not only the HER2-independent anticancer potentials of LPT against TNBC, but also apoptosis-induction capabilities of TPP and TS were introduced to enhance the anticancer potencies of HA-TS-TPP/LPT NPs for TNBC. HA-TS-TPP/LPT NPs (mean diameter: 207 nm; polydispersity index: 0.19; zeta potential: -24 mV) were fabricated by self-assembly property. Compared to HA-TS/LPT NPs, the increased antiproliferation, enhanced apoptotic effects, and improved mitochondrial disruption capability were confirmed in MDA-MB-231 cells (as one of TNBC cells). The in vivo tumor targetability of HA-TS-TPP/LPT NPs was demonstrated in MDA-MB-231 tumor-implanted mouse models with real-time optical imaging studies. After intravenous injection, HA-TS-TPP/LPT NPs achieved better antitumor profiles rather than the other tested groups. All these results indicate that HA-TS-TPP/LPT NPs may be one of promising candidates for efficient TNBC therapy.

Acid hydrolysis is the most common method to prepare cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). citric acid (CA) is a weak poly-carboxylic acid which is beneficial for avoiding cellulose undergoing heavy degradation during acid hydrolysis. However, the weak acidity of CA can mostly lead to a difficulty in hydrolyzing the amorphous part of the cellulose and correspondingly results in a low yield of CNCs. In this work, CNCs were produced from bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp with a high yield over 76% via FeCl3-catalyzed CA hydrolysis process. It was found that the resultant CNCs products with a diameter of 20-30 nm and length of 200-400 nm, and a maximum crystallinity index of about 78% could be achieved when the dose of FeCl3 was 0.03 mM, CA concentration was 80%, and reaction temperature was 80 °C. Meanwhile, carboxylic groups could be introduced onto the surface of CNCs via esterification during FeCl3-catalyzed CA hydrolysis process to form carboxylic CNCs . Results showed that the contents of carboxylic acid groups could reach up to 0.69 mmol g-1, which facilitate their functionalization and dispersion in aqueous processing. The carboxylic CNCs presented in this work offer commercial success and lower toxic risks, which means they have the potential to find applications as environmentally friendly, sustainable, and new bio-based nanomaterials in high-tech fields, such as biomaterials.

Surface modification of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) is of great interest, especially to facilitate their use as polymer reinforcements. Generally, alteration of the surface chemistry is performed using multiple reaction steps. In contrast, this study demonstrates that the hydrolysis of disordered regions of cellulose along with the esterification of accessible hydroxyl groups can be performed simultaneously in a single step to produce surface functionalized CNCs. The reaction is carried out in an acid mixture composed of H2SO4, one type of organic acids (formic, acetic and butyric acids are all demonstrated) and H2O with a mass ratio of 1:7:2 for 3-7 h. The rod-like CNCs could be obtained with a high yield (>70%) and high crystallization index (>75%). Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that all of the obtained CNCs exhibited good thermal stability (Tmax >330 °C) which were better than that of the typical sulfuric acid hydrolysis ones. Moreover, due to the negative charged sulfate groups and ester groups introduced on the surface of CNCs in the mixed acid hydrolysis process, the resultant CNCs showed a typical flow birefringence under polarized light and CNC aqueous suspensions could be stably stored for a long time (over one month). Therefore, the present work demonstrated an efficient and sustainable preparation method for the acyl functionalized CNCs with high yield and good thermal stability.