Earticle

This systematic qualitative review synthesizes research on the cognitive benefits of the board game Go, focusing on its role in fostering cognitive development in children and supporting cognitive maintenance in older adults. It addresses two key questions: (1) Which studies have examined the relationship between Go and cognition in children and older adults? (2) What cognitive benefits have these studies reported? Thirteen peer-reviewed studies (2000–2024) were identified, all of which used Go as the main intervention and reported cognitive outcomes. Studies were coded for participants, methodology, setting, and outcome measures. Participants included children and older adults, with cognitive outcomes ranging from global cognition to attention, executive functioning, and memory. Methodologies in the quantitative studies varied and included randomized controlled trials, pre- and post-tests of cognitive function, neuroimaging (QEEG, PET), and biomarker analyses. Evidence indicates that Go may foster cognitive growth in children and support cognitive functioning in older adults. Among older adults, including those with mild cognitive impairment or early-stage Alzheimer’s, Go was associated with improved or stable cognitive performance, reduced depressive symptoms, and enhanced quality of life. Neuroimaging and biomarkers suggest increased brain activation and improved brain health. For children with ADHD, Go supported improvements in attention regulation, working memory, and executive function. Its visual-spatial and strategic features also support reasoning, problem-solving, and mathematical thinking. Overall, Go is a low-cost, accessible tool with potential cognitive, educational, and therapeutic benefits across the lifespan. However, research on children and classroom contexts is limited, with small sample sizes and inconsistent reports on effect size. Future studies should expand to young children, explore classroom applications, and continue longitudinal research to fully assess Go’s developmental and cognitive potential.

이 연구의 목적은 한국지질자원연구원 내 국제지질자 원인재개발센터의 지질과학 교육프로그램을 중심으로 중 학생들의 인지적 발달수준에 따른 지질과학에 대한 태도 와 교육만족도를 알아보고, 이들 사이에 어떠한 상관관계 가 나타나는지 알아보는 데 있다. 연구대상은 2018년 국제 지질자원인재개발센터에서 실시한 지질과학 교육프로그 램에 참여한 중학생 282명 중 무선 표집 방법에 의한 139 명이다. 따라서 연구결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 구체적 조 작 단계는 44%, 과도기는 32%, 형식적 조작 단계는 24% 로, 76%의 중학생들의 인지적 발달 수준은 형식적 수준에 도달하지 못하는 결과를 나타내었다. 또한 지질과학에 대 한 태도는 통계적으로 유의미한 차이를 나타내었으며, 하 위영역으로는 ‘지질 관련 과학수업 Geology-related science class’, ‘교외 지질과학 Suburban geological science class’, ‘지질과학과 기술에 대한인식 Recognition of geological science and technology’에서 통계적으로 유의미한 결과 값 을 나타내었다. 둘째, 교육만족도는 인지적 발달수준에 따라 통계적으로 유의미한 차이는 없었다. 즉, 모든 인지 적 수준의 연구 참여자들이 국제지질자원인재개발센터에 서 진행하는 지질과학 교육프로그램에 대해서 높은 만족 도를 나타내었다. 셋째, 교육만족도와 지질 과학에 대한 태도 사이의 상관관계는 통계적으로 의미 있는 정적 상관 관계를 나타내었다. 따라서 학습 행동체계에 있어 국제지 질자원인재개발센터의 교육 훈련에 참여한 연구 참여자 들이 교육만족감을 높게 가질수록 지질 과학에 대한 태도 도 긍정적으로 나타날 수 있다.

The purpose of this research was to examine the attitudes toward science on geology and satisfaction of education according to the stage of cognitive development of middle school students mainly on the geoscience education program of IS-GEO(International School for Geoscience and Mineral Resources) which is the KIGAM(Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources) and to see what kind of correlation it shows between these. The subjects of research are 139 out of 282 students who participated in the geoscience education program conducted at the IS-GEO which is a KIGAM in 2018 by random sampling. Therefore, the research results are as follows. First, the concrete operational stage was 44%, the transition stage was 32%, the formal operational stage was 24%, 76% of the middle school student's cognitive development level didn’t reach at the formal operational stage. Also, attitudes towards science on geology indicated statistically significant differences in the sub-region in "Geology-related science class", "Suburban geological science class", "Recognition of geological science and technology". Second, there was no statistically significant difference in educational satisfaction depending on the stages of every cognitive development. In other words, all participants at the cognitive stages showed high satisfaction with the geological education program which progresses at the IS-GEO, which is the KIGAM. Third, the correlation between educational satisfaction and attitudes toward science on geology showed a statistically meaningful static correlation. Therefore, attitudes toward science on geology can be positively displayed that participants who participated in geoscience education program and training of the IS-GEO have high satisfaction of education in science behavioral system.

현 한국 교육의 인지발달적 도덕교육 모형은 학생들의 도덕적 행동의 변화에 충분한 효과를 미치지 못하는 것으로 여겨진다. 도덕이 별도의 과목으로 설정되어 있기는 하지만 지식 전달에 그친 감이 있고 도덕적 행동의 결단에 이르도록 하는 데는 부족해 보인다. 그리고 이마저 현 교육계의 정책 입안자들의 논란 속에 폐지의 위기에 몰려 있다. 이와 비슷한 상황에서 청소년들의 도덕적 책임에 관한 문제제기로 인해서 미국에서는 1990년 이후로 인격교육이 심심치 않게 거론되어 오고 있으며, 인격교육 기관들이 생기고, 학교교육에 적용되기도 한다. 인격교육의 특징은 보편적으로 주요한 가치들을 교육하고, 인격적 역할 모델들을 제시하며, 도덕적 풍토를 조성하여 정의, 공정, 배려, 책임, 우정, 겸손, 절제, 애국심 등의 덕을 배우도록 하는 것이다. 본 논문에서는 특히 한국의 효 사상이 이러한 인격교육의 덕목으로서 필요한 것이며, 효과적인 교육 내용이라고 본다. 부모공경, 바람직한 인간관계, 사회적 책임감, 자연에 대한 공존의 윤리의식 등이 효 교육을 통해 학생들의 의식 속에 심겨질 수 있으며, 이러한 효행을 장려함으로써 도덕적으로 성숙한 공동체를 이루어 갈 수 있는 가능성이 있다고 본다. 하지만 이런 교육에서는 특별히 교사들의 역할이 중요시되므로 이들의 훈련이 필요하며, 효과 있는 교육을 위해 다양한 프로그램들이 개발될 필요가 있다. 만약 이런 교육이 가시화 된다면 한국의 아름다운 문화의 계승과 구체적인 덕목의 교육이 이루어져서 두 마리의 토끼를 잡을 수 있는 효과를 기대할 수 있을 것이다.

Korean moral education with the cognitive development model has not been so effective for enhancing the moral acting of the students. Even though we have a separate school subject of moral education, it seems that it has carried only the knowledge of the lesson and could not have reached the level of moral change of the students. For the worse, the policy makers have been discussing over disuse of the subject in school. Some Americans have promoted character education throughout the nation since 1990 in the wake of the low moral consciousness of the young people. They have established organizations, institutes, and schools that give character education. Some of the distinctive features of character education are instruct important universal values, giving role models, and making moral environment in order to teach the main virtues such as justice, fairness, care for others, responsibility, friendship, humility, honesty, and patriotism. The writer presume that the Korean culture of Hyo will be effective for character education and it has good contents of moral education. With hyo education, Korean students can learn the values of loving parents, having good relationship with others, social responsibility, and conservation of nature. We can expect that they could live in morally developed community in the future with the practice of Hyo. But, the role of teachers is critical and they need special training for the education. Various kinds of educational programs need to be created and developed. If the character education of Hyo will be successful, we could reach the goals of succession of the beautiful Korean Hyo culture and the success of moral education at the same time.

Objective: To develop and verify the usability of a cognitive rehabilitation system with diverse cognitive functional levels based on tangible objects for the elderly population. Methods: A study was conducted to investigate the system's strengths and weaknesses by upgrading it with responses from two groups of 15 patients and 4 occupational therapists. After undergoing three forms of training - regarding executive function, memory, and concentration for a total of 20?30 min, the participants were asked to answer a structured questionnaire about contents of the three forms of training, hardware including the tablet PC functioning as a CPU and display media and tangible objects, and satisfaction of experiential usage of the system. Results: Both groups responded that the most interesting training area was executive function while the least interesting was concentration. Six participants reported that the size of the screen of the tablet PC was inappropriate, and five responded that the size of the tool was inappropriate. All therapists and 40% of the patients responded that they were satisfied with this system. Conclusion: This system’s features include easy manipulation of tangible tools for performing training tasks, easy selection of and training in cognitive areas based on users’ needs, and automatic adjustment of difficulty level based on users’ performance. The training environment was designed to be similar to the natural environment by using tangible objects in both hands as input devices for the system, and the system was considered as an alternative to the lack of community cognitive rehabilitation specialists.

Objective: This study was to develop computerized screening test items for mild cognitive impairment. Methods: Through literature reviews, items from computerized tests for screening mild cognitive impairment were extracted. A panel of professional experts validated that the items were important and fit to screen for mild cognitive impairment. Results: A total 37 items were extracted from 12 computerized tests and 11 new items were added through the first panel review. After that, 18 items were removed via the second panel review. Finally, 16 items were selected by analyzing content validity ratio. 16 items consisted of memory, attention, and executive function areas. Conclusions: A total of 16 computerized test items were developed. It is urgent to validate them to screen mild cognitive impairment. Moreover, standardization studies for this test are required in the future.

Purpose: The present study was conducted to develop a mild vascular cognitive impairment (MVCI) assessment tool for patients with stroke and to examine its validity, reliability, and clinical adequacy. Methods: Items of this tool were developed based on previously verified cognitive assessment tools. Face, content, and criterion (concurrent) validities, optimal cut-off score for differentiation of MVCI and normal cognitive function, clinical adequacy, internal consistency, and inter-rater reliability of the assessment tool were determined in 60 stroke patients at a university hospital located in Incheon, South Korea. Results: The devised MVCI assessment tool contains 20 items which were designed to assess seven cognitive domains: orientation, memory, language, attention, reasoning/abstraction, visuospatial perception, and executive function/problem solving. Content, face, and construct validities were well supported. Clinical adequacy testing revealed that the overall probability of correctly discriminating MVCI using the MVCI assessment tool for stroke was 90.0%, which was statistically significant. Furthermore, a score of 23 was found to be the optimal cut-off score for MVCI. Internal consistency and inter-rater reliability were also well supported. Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that the developed MVCI assessment tool for stroke could serve as a clinically useful tool for detecting MVCI and for properly assessing degree of cognitive impairment in stroke patients.

Purpose: Dementia and altered cognitive function are highly prevalent among older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI); hence, prevention is necessary before it develops into dementia. Treatment adherence?medication adherence and physical activity?is essential to prevent and delay dementia; however, comprehensive interventions to promote it in this population are lacking. This study aimed to develop a program for treatment adherence utilizing an Internet of things (IoT) device. Methods: The six-step mapping protocol was used to develop the IoT-based treatment adherence intervention (ITAI). The intervention was based on literature review, expert opinions, and input from older adults with MCI. Results: In Step 1, needs assessment was conducted to gain insights into health problems and their underlying determinants. In Steps 2 and 3, performance objectives were identified for behavior change and selected theoretical and evidence-based methods were linked to the intervention outcomes. In Step 4, the ITAI was designed with components and materials consistent with the identified change goals and methods, and specific intervention components developed. In Step 5, implementation plans and solutions to barriers to its application were identified. In Step 6, the plan to evaluate intervention effectiveness was outlined. Conclusion: The intervention mapping provided a systematic procedure for developing an ITAI for older adults with MCI and preparing a randomized controlled trial. Utilizing intervention mapping is useful as ITAI systematically processes treatment adherence for MCI using the IoT and is acceptable and valid. ITAI is expected to increase medication adherence and physical activity in older adults with MCI.

This paper describes an investigation on the spot for designing conducted in the outdoor play yards of kindergarten. Aiming at status quo of the designing for the outdoor environment of kindergarten, the conception of the scene-based design is put forward in this paper: The scene-based design is to construct a desired environment to meet the design principles and, more importantly, the need required for children’s physiological and mental development. The major aim is to supply abundant experiences which let the children be able to feel the space around them in the sense of emotional and visual perception. Basing on the children psychological traits, the question that how to design the scene-based space of being outdoors which can efficiently promote the cognitive development of children ranging from 5 to 6 years old is discussed in this paper. A “scene-based” approach to design and a data collection set including field notes of the children are coverd in the research. Qualitative analysis of these data revealed that high quality of outdoors enviroment for a kindergarten can greatly contribute to the cognitive development of children.

본 연구의 목적은 여가체험으로서의 모험적 활동을 탐색하고 인지적 체험과 정서적 체험, 그리고 만족과 지속의도 의 구조적 관계를 확인하는 것이다. 예비연구를 통해 도출된 척도를 토대로 실증적인 연구를 수행하였고. 고독감, 자기향상 감, 자연신비감, 도전감, 대인신뢰감을 포함하는 5가지 인지적 체험차원이 도출되었으며 세부적인 문항은 총 20개이다. 실증 분석 결과, 모험적 여가 참가자들은 체험의 인지적 요소들을 어떻게 지각하는가에 따라 자신들의 감정이 결정될 수 있다는 점이 발견되었으며, 감정체험은 다시 전반적인 체험만족과 지속의도에 영향을 준다는 사실을 확인하였다. 결론적으로 각성 과 즐거움이 고독감, 자연신비감, 도전감, 대인신뢰감 등의 모험적 여가활동의 인지적 체험과 체험 만족을 연결해주는 매개 변수의 역할을 하는 것으로 확인되었으며, 결국 각성과 즐거움의 두 감정체험차원은 모험적 여가활동을 설명하는 핵심적인 기제임이 확인된 것이다. 따라서 본 연구의 결과가 모험적 여가의 중요성을 학계에 알리는 계기가 되길 바라며 , 연구자들 로 하여금 생산적인 후속 연구가 촉발되길 기대한다.

The purpose of this study is to explore the experience of participants in the adventurous leisure activities and to examine the structural relations of the cognitive experience, the emotional experience and adherence intention. Robust quantitative measures were developed from rich qualitative data. The five dimensions selected from two preliminary tests were being away, technical enhancement, fascination with nature, challenge, and interpersonal trust. The cognitive dimensions have a significant effect on the emotional arousal–pleasure dimension. Our study also shows a positive causal relationship between emotional experience and adherence intention. Implications of this study include 1) a developed questionnaire for measuring the cognitive experience dimension of adventure leisure and establishing a foundation for future research, and 2) an identified psychological model among cognitive, emotion, and intention. We offer opportunities to better understand the psychological factors that motivate participation in adventure leisure.

Go is a strategy game of oriental origin that has spread to many countries. With an antiquity of more than 2,500 years, its influence has expanded to Mexico, where it is currently practiced by people of all ages, without distinction of gender. Information on the web and studies indicate that practicing Go can influence the strengthening of cognitive skills of the people who play it. Therefore, the interest in this project is focused on studying the influence of the game Go on the development and strengthening of cognitive skills in people who play it in Mexico City and the metropolitan area, based on the evaluation and comparison of two groups: a group of 22 people who play Go and a group of 22 people who do not. The study was carried out in June 2023. Four cognitive skills were chosen for evaluation: reasoning, creativity, mathematical ability, and emotional intelligence. The evaluations consisted of exercises designated by school levels: primary, secondary, and high school and beyond. The data obtained was compiled into a table to create comparative graphs. The interpretation of the results revealed that the group that played Go obtained higher percentages in the evaluation of cognitive abilities, with mathematical ability showing the most significant improvement.

Exercise has previously been shown to have positive effects on cognitive function; Cognitive function is known as having close relationship with specific Neuronal oscillation. Based on preceding researches, the current study examined the effect of exercise on the cognitive functions - learning, spatial memory and decision making process from the memory - with specially designed multi T-maze to escape from it with shorter time duration by memory. Besides different time decreases, the brain wave was collected during the maze task for analysis in such alteration of neuronal oscillation. As a result, we found that (1) the decrease in the time duration for escaping maze had statically significance and (2) some interesting neuronal oscillations related to cognitive function from previous researches were discovered. Thus we could conclude that exercise affects the development of spatial memory and task-solving ability and the neuronal oscillations on cognitive function.

The purpose of this study was to develop a cognitive enhancement gymnastics program for the elderly with dementia and to verify its effect. The study was conducted on 27 people with dementia being treated in a dementia day care center in Incheon city. No statistically significant dif-ferences were found in the measures Mini-Mental State Examination for Dementia Screening (MMSE-DS), Short Geriatric Depression Scale (SGDS), Seoul Activities of Daily Living (S-ADL), or rock-paper-scissors. However, the MMSE-DS and rock-paper-scissors showed improvement after 12 weeks.

Purpose: Suicide attempters experience high levels of psychological stress such as depression, anxiety, hopelessness, guilt. The study aimed to develop an individual cognitive behavioral program for suicide attempters and verify its effectiveness. Methods: This study was an experimental design before and after nonequivalent control group. The participants were 18 suicide attempters(experimental group: 10 persons, control group: 8 persons). Experimental group participated in the individual cognitive behavioral program (8 sessions) for 8 weeks and the control group attended post suicide attempt, case management (8 sessions) for 8 weeks. Data collection was conducted by a structured questionnaire about depression, suicidal ideation, feelings of hopelessness, life satisfaction and expectations, and quality of life. Results: The individual cognitive behavioral program significantly reduced suicidal ideation (t=-2.12, p=.005), depression (t=-5.42, p<.001), and hopelessness (t=-7.59, p<.001) in suicide attempters compared to the usual case management. Conclusion: Our findings provide the valuable support that in suicide attempters, cognitive behavioral program reduces risk of suicidal reattempt via alleviating suicidal ideation, depression, and feeling of hopelessness.

We investigated the effect of exercise rehabilitation based on fine mo-tor movement for the elderly with mild dementia. Using electroenceph-alogram (EEG), the change of brain wave of them based on fine motor movement and comparing the improvement level of cognitive ability and performance capability in daily living activity was recorded. The subjects were the elderly with mild dementia living in a sanatorium in Incheon city. Mini-Mental Status Examination, activity of daily living (ADL), and the influence on depression were examined. After 8-week exercise program, significant difference in cognitive function and ADL was observed, however, and there was no significant difference in de-pression. In the EEG, there was a significant difference in α-wave. This study suggests the chance to remind the necessity of exercise programs for improving cognitive function and ADL of the elderly with dementia.

본 연구는 인지발달에 대한 지식중심접근에서 주장하는 이론 가설을 검증하기 위해 수행되었다. 이를 위하여 3세에서 11세 아동들을 대상으로 이들이 물리, 생물, 심리 영역에 대해 어떤 지식을 가지고 있는지를 조사하여 이러한 지식이 이론의 형태인지, 어떤 이론적 특성을 가지는지, 어떤 발달적 변화를 보이는지를 분석하였다. 그 결과, 존재론적 구분에서는 3세 아동들도 각 영역에 속하는 대상을 과제의 약 25%에서 정확하게 구분함을 보여 줌으로써 3세부터 아동들은 이론을 형성할 수 있는 기반을 가지고 있는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 인과관계의 법칙에서는 5세부터 세 영역의 지식이 모두 인과관계를 설명하는 도구로서의 기능을 초보적인 수준에서 수행하는 것으로 나타났다. 응집성은 심리이론의 경우는 3세부터 상당한 수준의 응집성을 보이지만 물리이론과 생물이론의 경우는 7세부터 조금 나타나기 시작하며 9세와 11세 아동들의 이론도 여전히 응집성이 낮은 것으로 나타났다. 추상적 구성체로서의 특성은 심리영역에서는 3세 이후, 물리와 생물영역에서는 9세나 11세가 되어야 추상적인 구성체로 인과관계를 설명하기 시작하는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구의 이러한 결과는 아동들의 지식은 기존에 알려진 것 보다 더 어린 연령에서 초보적 이론의 형태를 갖추고 존재하며 영역별로 각기 다른 발달적 변화를 보임을 시사하였다.

The aim of this study was to examine the theory hypothesis suggested by the knowledge oriented approaches to cognitive development. We investigated 3- to 11-year-old children's physical, psychological and biological knowledge and examined whether they were organized as a theory, what kind of characteristics they had and how they have changed with increasing age. Results indicated that, for ontological distinctions, 3-year-old children performed correctly in about 25% of the tasks in each domain. This suggested that they had foundational abilities to form a theory. For causal law, from 5 years of age, children's physical, psychological and biological knowledge were used as a causal device to give explanations to why questions. For coherence, in psychological domain, coherence of knowledge system has emerged from 3 years of age, however in physical and biological domains, it has emerged after 9 and 11 years of age respectively. For abstract construct, in psychological domain, after 3 years of age, children explained behaviors by the abstract construct such as the state of mind. However, in physical and biological domains, not until at 9- and 11-year-old, children explained the causal relations by an abstract construct. The findings of the present study suggest that children's knowledge exists as a theory much earlier than known by the traditional theory and the theories of each domain develop specifically with increasing age.

본 연구의 목적은 20개월 된 영아에게 인지 발달 증진 프로그램을 실시하여 영아의 인지 발달과 어머니-영아 상호작용의 질적 향상에 대한 효과를 검증하고자 하는 것이었다. 피험자는 단기종단연구에 참여해왔던 영아들 중에서 인지, 언어, 사회성 측정치가 저조한 영아들의 어머니의 동의를 받아 선정하였다. 인지적 중재 프로그램은 한달에 2회씩 총 8회기가 실시되었다. 프로그램 실시 전과 후에 실험집단과 통제집단에 대해 수, 형태 그리고 색 개념, 모방, 대상영속성을 측정하였고 어머니-영아 상호작용을 비디오 촬영하였다. 사전점수를 공변량으로 하여 사후 평균치의 차이를 분석하였다. 중재집단에서 영아의 수개념과 모방이 유의하게 높았고, 어머니-아이 상호작용 중 수반적 격려가 높았으며, 비수반적 반응은 낮았다. 그 이외에 중재집단의 어머니들은 수 종류의 단어 사용이 더 높았다. 유아의 놀이집중도와 어머니가 영아에게 도전기회를 부여하는 정도에서는 차이가 없었으나 어머니의 관심도는 유의하게 높았다. 본 연구의 인지적 중재 프로그램은 충분한 결과를 얻지는 못했으나, 영아를 대상으로 하여 인지 발달 향상이 어느 정도 얻어졌으며, 차후 인지적 중재 프로그램의 개발에 밑받침이 될 것이다.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of cognitive intervention on the cognitive development on the part of 20-month-old infants as well as the quality of mother-infant interaction during play. Subjects were chosen, with their parents' consent, among the follow-up infants who had participated in a short-term longitudinal study, scoring relatively low in cognitive, language, and social development. The cognitive intervention program was administered twice monthly for four months. Number, form, color, imitation, and object permanence of two groups were measured before and after the application of the program and the nother-infant interaction was videotaped. The average difference of post-test scores between two groups were analyzed using pre-test scores as covariance. The difference was significant in both number and imitation in intervention group. mother-infant interaction ad an mother's contingent encouragement was higher in intervention group and was reverse in non-contingent response to their infants. In addition, the mothers in the intervention group used number-related words more frequently than those in the controlled group. The extent to which mothers care and show interests during infants' play was higher significantly among mothers of experimental group whereas it was not different significantly between the two groups in providing with the infants opportunities to challenge to task. The cognitive intervention program used in this study did not yield expected significant results. However, it was assumed to improve the infants' cognitive development and to provide insight into the development of cognitive intervention program for further studies as well.

본 연구는 인지발달의 영역특정성 가설을 검증하기 위해 수행되었다. 이를 위하여 3세에서 11세 아동들을 대상으로 이들이 물리, 생물, 심리 영역에서 어떤 지식을 가지고 있는지를 조사하여 이러한 지식이 영역 별로 구분된 지식인지, 영역특정적인 발달을 보이는지를 분석하였다. 물리, 심리, 생물지식이 구분되어 있는지를 알아보기 위해 존재론적 구분, 영역 간 교차 설명을 분석하였다. 그 결과, 아동들의 물리, 심리지식은 3세부터 구분되어 있는 독립적인 영역인 것으로 밝혀졌다. 그러나 생물지식은 7세가 되어야 독립적인 영역으로 확립되는 것으로 나타났다. 영역특정적 발달여부를 알아보기 위하여 영역 간 과제와 영역 내 하위과제의 수행 간 상관관계를 분석하였다. 그 결과, 모든 연령에서 영역 간 과제수행의 상관관계가 낮게 나와 영역특정적 발달을 시사하는 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 영역 내 하위과제간의 상관관계도 영역 간 상관관계와 마찬가지로 낮아서 영역특정성 가설에 반하는 결과를 보여 주었다. 그리고 영역 간 상관관계의 연령에 따른 변화는 체계적이지 않았다. 따라서 영역특정성이 아동의 연령이 증가함에 따라 일정한 방향으로 변화하는지의 여부는 확인하지 못했다. 본 연구의 이러한 결과를 인지발달의 영역특정성 가설을 실증적으로 검증하는데 있어서의 방법론적 문제점과 관련하여 논의하였다.

The present study examined the issue of domain specificity in cognitive development. We investigated 3- to 11-year-old children's physical, psychological and biological knowledge to examine whether they were distinctive knowledge systems and have developed domain specifically with increasing age. To assess children's distinctive knowledge systems, we analyzed ontological distinctions and cross domain explanations. Results indicated that the physical and psychological domains were independent from at 3 years of age, but the biological domain was not until at 7 years of age. To assess domain specific developmental changes, we analyzed rank order correlations of between domain tasks and within domain tasks. Results indicated that the correlations of between domain tasks were not very high. This suggested that the levels of performances in each domain were not the same or homogeneous and supported the domain specificity hypothesis. However, the correlations of within domain tasks were also not very high. These were unexpected results and inconsistent with the domain specificity hypothesis. There were no systematic changes in the correlations of each age group. So we couldn't find any systematic developmental changes in the domain specificity. The findings of this study were discussed for further empirical testing of domain specificity hypothesis in cognitive development.

본 고는 학습과 발달에 관한 세 가지 접근을 논하였다. 먼저, 발달 심리학의 두 이론인 피아제와 비고츠키 이론에서의 학습과 발달을 기술하였다. 이 두 이론의 주요 차이는 학습과 발달의 근원이 어디에 있는가, 즉 학습자가 물리적 혹은 사회적 환경과의 상호작용을 통하여 그 자신이 지식을 창조하느냐, 혹은 다른 사람에 의하여 간접 혹은 직접적으로 지식이 가르쳐 지느냐 하는 것이다. 피아제는 아동이 물리적 혹은 비슷한 수준의 또래와의 상호작용을 통한 인지적 갈등에 의하여, 아동 자신이 일으키는 내적 구조적 변화를 발달로 보았으며, 비고츠키는 성인이나 앞서가는 또래들에 의한 조력과 유도된 지도를 통하여, 외적 사회적 인지 구조가 아동의 내적 인지구조로 전환되는 것을 학습, 혹은 발달과정으로 보았다. 그러나 이 두 이론은 발달이나 학습에서 공통적으로 아동의 능동적 참여와 아동 중심적 과정을 중시하였다. 두 이론에서 다루어 지고 있는 인지 영역 혹은 기술들이 피아제의 경우는 보편적인 것인 반면, 비고츠키의 경우는 문화적, 사회적으로 특수한 것(cultural specific)이라는 차이를 보인다. 피아제와 비고츠키의 학습과 발달에 대한 관점을 다시 지시적 교수방법과 대조하였다. 아동을 가르치는 유형에는 크게 두 가지가 있다 :제시된 자료를 흡수하는 소극적 학습자를 가정하는 가르침이 있으며, 제시된 정보를 재구성하는 능동적 학습자를 가정하는 가르침이 있다. 학습자가 능동적 역할을 하는 가르침만이 아등에게서 진정한 학습과 발달이 일어나게 한다. 그러나 교사나 부모들이 아동들에게 중요한 사실이나 정보를 전달하고자 할 때 흔히, 능동적 학습은 자연적이고 느린 과정을 통하여 일어나므로 조급하여져서, 지시적으로 가르치게 되어 비교적 수동적 인 학습이 되게 한다. 이것은 아동에게 학습을 부담스럽게 하며, 지식을 충분히 이해하여 획득하거나 융통성있게 사용하도록 하지 못한다. 비고츠키가 관찰한 성인의 조력은 아동의 지적 수준에서 출발하며, 아동 각 개인의 발달하는 지식과 능력 정도에 따라, 활동의 주체를 아동에게 이양시켜 가는 능동적 학습의 과정이다.

Three perspectives on learning and/or development are described. First, learning and development within two theoretical positions in developmental psychology, Piagetian and Vygotskian theory, are described. The major way in which these theories differ is in terms of the source of learning and development whether the learner creates the knowledge herself through interaction with the social and physical environment, or whether she is taught the knowledge directly or indirectly by another. Differences in these two theories in terms of fundamental assumptions and topics of investigation are described, but it is also pointed out that the two theories are indeed similar in some fundamental ways. Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives on learning and development are then contrasted with direct teaching. There are essentially two types of teaching: teaching that assumes a passive learner who absorbs the material presented, and teaching that assumes an active learner who reconstructs the infomation presented. It would be claimed that only teaching in which the learner takes an active role is likely to lead to genuine learning and development. Ironically, it is when we- as parents or as teachers-most value the transmission of a certain sort of information that we are most likely to become impatient with the natural processes of active learning, and engage in direct teaching of a relatively passive student. Some possible consequences of this approach is discussed.

.