Earticle

This study evaluated the effectiveness of fire safety education in high school dormitories high density residential environments by assessing both cognitive and behavioral changes. Pre and post surveys were combined with measurement of the Required Safe Egress Time (RSET), which recorded 264 seconds from alarm activation (T₀ + 0 sec) to final evacuation completion (T₀ + 264 sec). This enabled a quantitative analysis of behavioral improvement. Results revealed that academic performance and family background significantly influenced learning outcomes, whereas the “evacuation during fire” domain showed no statistically significant change, suggesting insufficient instructional content or delivery. Policy recommendations include customized fire safety programs reflecting learner characteristics, experiential evacuation drills, school and home safety integration, mandatory dormitory fire drills, and certification with best practice dissemination. The findings offer a practical framework for enhancing fire safety education tailored to dormitory based schools, contributing to improved preparedness, response capability, and student survival in real fire emergencies.

This study quantitatively analyzed the effect of ceiling height on the response time of rate of rise heat detectors. A 7 m × 5 m simulation model was constructed using the PyroSim program, and scenarios were conducted by varying the installation height from 4.0 m to 7.5 m in 0.5 m increments. A wooden pallet fire source, placed at a height of 1.22 m, was simulated. The simulation results showed that as the installation height increased, the response time was delayed from 155.6 seconds to 204.6 seconds a difference of approximately 49 seconds. Meanwhile, the activation temperature decreased from 50.4 ℃ to 43.4 ℃, representing a drop of about 7 ℃. These findings indicate that in structures with higher ceilings, the responsiveness of detectors may be compromised due to the delayed arrival of hot air flows. Therefore, current height based installation standards in prescriptive design should be re-evaluated for high ceiling structures. Complementary design measures such as optimized placement, detector type selection, and increased installation density are recommended.

The Pyrosim fire simulation program was used to investigate changes in operating time as a function of the attachment height of a fixed-temperature detector. Operating times were analyzed for detector heights ranging from 4 m to 7.5 m, in 0.5 m increments, within a 30 m2 space. The fire source was modeled as a wooden pallet 1.22 m in height, and a Type 1 fixed-temperature detector with an activation temperature of 67.9℃ was used. The simulation results showed that operating time increased progressively with detector height, rising from 155.7 seconds at 4m to 206.3 seconds at 7.5 m a maximum delay of 50.6 seconds. Notably, larger increases were observed in the 4 m ~ 4.5 m and 6 m ~ 6.5 m ranges 14.9 and 11.5 seconds, respectively than those observed in other intervals. This suggests that critical height ranges should be considered when establishing detector installation standards. This study found that current design standards may not ensure adequate detection performance in high-ceilinged structures. In warehouses and industrial facilities with ceilings of 6m or higher, such delays in detector activation could hinder early detection, indicating a need for improvements

이 연구는 기존의 면적 중심의 연기감지기 설치기준을 보완하기 위해 PyroSim 시뮬레이션 프로그램을 활용하여 감지기 부착 높이에 따른 작동시간을 분석하였다. 150m² 규모의 공간 중앙에 가연물을 배치하고, 감지기 설치 높이를 달리하여 화재 시 작동시간 변화를 측정하였다. 그 결과, 1종 감지기는 부착 높이 2.5m에서 36.6초, 19m에서는 50.2초로 약 13.6초의 지연이 발생하였으며, 2종 감지기도 유사한 경향을 보였으나 전반적으로 1종보다 작동시간이 더 길게 나타났다. 이러한 지연은 고천장 및 대형 공간에서 연기의 상승과 분산이 느려지기 때문으로, 특히 10m 이상의 공간에서는 작동시간의 차이가 두드러졌다. NFPA 72 기준에 따르면 환기량이 많을수록 공기 순환 속도에 따라 감지기 1대가 담당할 수 있는 면적이 감소한다. 이에 따라 연기감지기 설계 시에는 부착 높이뿐 아니라 환기량, 공간구조, 공기 흐름 등 다양한 환경 요인을 종합적으로 고려해야 한다. 특히 고천장이나 환기량이 많은 대형 공간에서는 감지기 간격을 좁히거나 고감도 감지기를 적용하는 것이 효과적이다. 또한 공간의 용도와 화재 위험도에 따라 적절한 감지기 유형을 선택해야 하며, 부착 높이와 환기량이 증가할수록 화재 감지시간이 지연되므로 여러 조건들을 반영한 합리적인 설계 및 면적 산정이 필요하다. 이는 대형 건축물 및 고층 공간의 화재 안전성을 향상시키며, 공간별 위험도에 대응하는 효율적인 화재 경보체계 구축에 기여할 것으로 기대된다.

This study utilized the PyroSim simulation program to analyze the operating time of smoke detectors according to their installation height, and it is designed to supplement the existing area-based installation standards. A combustible material was placed at the center of a 150 m² space, and the activation times of photoelectric smoke detectors installed at different heights were measured during a simulated fire. The Type 1 detector activated at 36.6 seconds when installed at 2.5 m and at 50.2 seconds at 19 m, showing a delay of approximately 13.6 seconds. The Type 2 detector exhibited a similar pattern but generally had longer activation times than the Type 1 detector. This delay is attributed to the slower rise and dispersion of smoke in spaces with high ceilings or large volumes, with particularly significant differences observed above 10 m. According to NFPA 72, the allowable coverage area per detector decreases as ventilation rates increase. Therefore, smoke detector design should comprehensively consider installation height, ventilation, spatial structure, and airflow. In large spaces with high ceilings or strong ventilation, reducing detector spacing or using high-sensitivity detectors is recommended. Detector selection should consider the space’s use and fire risk. As installation height and ventilation increase, fire detection may be delayed; therefore, rational design and area calculations accounting for these factors are necessary. This approach enhances fire safety in large and high-rise buildings and supports efficient fire alarm systems tailored to different risk levels.

This study examines the fire safety performance of hospital sprinkler systems under Korean standards by analyzing the impact of different sprinkler head types on Available Safe Egress Time (ASET). Four simulation scenarios were developed: (1) no sprinkler system, (2) fast response heads, (3) special response heads, and (4) standard response heads. A fire was assumed to originate on the first floor, and simulations were conducted using PyroSim software. ASET was evaluated in terms of temperature, visibility, carbon monoxide (CO), and oxygen (O₂) concentration. The results showed ASET values of 354 s, 394 s, 354 s, and 355 s, respectively. Fast response heads demonstrated the best performance, increasing ASET by 11.30% on the first floor and 8.96% on the second floor compared to no sprinklers. These findings indicate that sprinkler activation significantly enhances evacuation safety, with the greatest effect observed on the fire-origin floor.

We are designed to compare the impact of smoke control systems on Available Safe Egress Time (ASET) in hospital buildings under Korean and Chinese standards. Using PyroSim, three scenarios are simulated: no smoke control, minimum standard exhaust and air supply rates, and a fixed exhaust rate of 18,000 m³/h. Evaluation focuses on temperature, visibility, CO, and O₂. Korean standards mandate a minimum exhaust rate of 5,000 m³/h per zone, while Chinese standards require 15,000 m³/h, producing a 77-second ASET difference. Air supply rules also differ: Korea requires supply to exceed exhaust, while China requires only 50% more. Under a uniform exhaust rate of 18,000 m³/h, ASET differs by over 495 seconds. Findings suggest Korea should raise its minimum exhaust rate and clarify the supply-to-exhaust ratio.

This paper focuses on a hospital building as the research object and investigates the impact of different sprinklers on the Available Safe Evacuation Time (ASET) after a fire. According to Chinese standards, sprinklers are categorized into fast response sprinkler, special response sprinkler, and standard response sprinkler based on their sensitivity. And we designed four scenarios: (1) no automatic sprinkler system, (2) an automatic sprinkler system with fast response sprinklers, (3) an automatic sprinkler system with special response sprinklers, and (4) an automatic sprinkler system with standard response sprinklers. The fire origin is set on the first floor of the building, and fire simulations are conducted using PyroSim software. The study examines the effects of different sprinklers on the ASET were discussed from four aspects: temperature, visibility, CO concentration, and O2 concentration. After simulating the scenarios, we found that the ASETs of the four scenarios are as follows: 447 s, 458 s, 451 s, and 447 s, respectively. Among these, the fast response sprinklers demonstrate the most effective fire suppression in hospital buildings. Additionally, compared to Scenario 1, the ASET on the first floor in Scenario 2 increases from 533 s to 553 s, representing a 3.75% improvement; the ASET on the second floor increases from 447 s to 458 s, a 2.46% improvement. The activation of the automatic sprinkler system significantly improves the ASET of the floor where the fire originates.

This paper presents a comparative analysis of the impact of smoke barriers on the Available Safe Evacuation Time (ASET) in hospital buildings after a fire, based on the Korean and Chinese standards. Three scenarios are established according to the width specifications of smoke barriers in both standards. Fire simulations are conducted using PyroSim software, and the effects of smoke barriers on ASET are examined from four aspects: temperature, visibility, CO concentration, and O2 concentration. The simulation results indicated that the ASET under both the Korean and Chinese standards are similar. The study also concluded that, regardless of the standard, smoke barriers play a role in restricting the spread of fire smoke. When the width of the smoke barrier is too large, its effect on improving the ASET on the floor where the fire originates is limited, but it has a more significant effect on the ASET on other floors.

The open state of hotel room exterior doors affects the area of smoke flow outward, which has a significant impact on fire simulation results. Moreover, based on different national standards, the results of fire simulation also vary. Therefore, this paper takes an 8-story hotel as the research object and uses PyroSim software to establish a fire simulation model. Based on the Korean standards, four fire scenarios were considered, namely, after a fire occurs, the outer door of the hotel room is in an open state, the outer door of the hotel room opens after 120s, the outer door of the hotel room opens after 210s, and the outer door of the hotel room opens after 300s. Through simulations of four scenarios, the influence of the open state of hotel room exterior doors on smoke diffusion was discussed from four aspects: visibility, temperature, CO volume, and CO2 volume. The research results show that compared with other scenarios, Scenario 3 (where the outer door of the room on fire is opened and the fire doors of other rooms are opened 210s later) shows little change in visibility below 5 meters. However, when the simulated temperature reaches 500s, the temperature of the stairwell measurement point near the fire source on the second floor decreases by 7.73%, the CO volume decreases by 9.8%, and the CO2 volume decreases by 6.73%. The simulation results of Scenario 3 are most conducive to personnel evacuation. At 210s, visibility, temperature, CO volume, and CO2 volume are all below the threshold set by the regulations. Therefore, opening the outer door of the room in a timely manner around 210s after a fire occurs is of great significance for improving personnel safety.

Draft curtains are an important tool to reduce the spread of fire smoke in buildings. This paper mainly studies the influence of draft curtains on smoke spread in a hospital outpatient building with a spacious hall. The outpatient building of a county hospital in China is taken as the research object, and a fire simulation model is established based on PyroSim software. Four scenarios are designed: no draft curtains in the hall, draft curtains with a length of 1.5m in the hall, draft curtains with a length of 2.0m in the hall, and draft curtains with a length of 2.5m in the hall. At the same time, considering the worst situation, only the main emergency exit is opened, while the remaining emergency exits and windows are all closed, and the fire-fighting facilities are not activated. The detection point is set at the open emergency exit, 1.8m above the ground. Through the simulation of four scenarios, the effect of draft curtains on smoke spread is discussed from four aspects: smoke layer height, temperature, visibility, and CO concentration. The results show that draft curtains have a significant impact on the spread of smoke in a hospital outpatient building with a spacious hall. The longer the draft curtains are, the better the smoke-blocking effect. It should be noted that in the actual design, the length of the draft curtains should be considered without affecting the evacuation of personnel.

In recent years, the frequency of fires in college dormitories has been increasing, primarily due to outdated electrical wiring and improper use of electrical appliances. Given the high population density in such buildings, fires can cause significant damage to life and property. To better understand the dynamics of dormitory fires, this study uses Pyrosim fire simulation software to model fire scenarios in a six-story male dormitory. The study focuses on analyzing key factors such as heat release rates, smoke spread, temperature changes, and carbon monoxide concentrations during a fire. Simulation results indicate that smoke spreads rapidly after a fire breaks out, significantly reducing visibility and hindering evacuation efforts. Simultaneously, temperatures near the fire source rise quickly, exceeding safe levels, and carbon monoxide concentrations reach dangerous thresholds in a short time, greatly increasing the risk of poisoning. Based on these findings, the study proposes several recommendations to improve fire prevention in dormitories, including installing smoke barriers, improving evacuation routes, adding mechanical smoke extraction systems, and enhancing students' fire safety awareness and skills through regular training. These measures are crucial for reducing fire risks and enhancing fire safety in college dormitories.

본 연구는 화재 시뮬레이션 프로그램인 PyroSim을 활용하여 지하주차장 전기차 화재 발생 시 스프링클러헤드 배치 조건에 따른 화재 억제 성능을 분석하였다. 이를 위해 스프링클러 작동시간, 피난 경로 내 가시거리, 인접 차량 온도 상승을 주요 지표로 설정하여 정량적 비교·평가를 수행하였다. 분석결과, 스프링클러 작동시간은 배치 형태에 따라 최대 6배 이상의 차이를 보였다. Case 1의 작동시간은 824s로 가장 늦게 나타났으며, Case 2와 Case 4는 각각 133s, 148s로 조기 작동이 확인되었다. HRR 증가 조건인 Case 5에서는 최초 작동시간이 84s로 나타났으며, 이 결과는 열방출률 증가가 스프링클러의 감응 속도 단축에 유의한 영향을 미치는 것으로 분석되었다. 피난 경로 내 가시거리는 Case 4에서 가장 우수하게 확보되었으며, HRR 증가 조건(Case 5)의 경우 초기 16~24m에서 420s 시점에 3~7m로 급격히 저하되는 경향을 보였다. 인접 차량 확산 위험성 평가 결과, 기준 온도 167°C 대비 Case 1과 Case 3은 이를 초과하여 확산 위험이 매우 크게 나타났지만, Case 4는 161~169°C 범위로, 상대적으로 낮아 적절한 헤드 배치가 화재확산 억제에 효과적인 것으로 확인되었다. 본 연구는 시뮬레이션 기반 연구라는 한계에도 불구하고, 감지기 연동, 제연·소화설비 통합 효과 분석 등 후속 연구 수행을 위한 기초자료로써 활용 가능성이 높다.

This study investigates the influence of sprinkler head layout conditions on fire suppression performance during electric vehicle (EV) fires in underground parking facilities using the fire simulation program PyroSim. Quantitative evaluations were conducted based on sprinkler activation time, visibility along evacuation routes, and the temperature rise of adjacent vehicles. The results indicate that activation time differed by up to sixfold depending on the layout configuration. Case 1 showed the latest activation at 824 s, whereas Cases 2 and 4 exhibited early activation at 133 s and 148 s. Under the increased heat release rate (HRR) scenario in Case 5, the first activation occurred at 84 s, demonstrating the direct effect of HRR escalation on faster thermal response. Visibility was highest in Case 4, while Case 5 showed a rapid decline from 16?24 m to 3?7 m at 420 s. In the spread risk assessment, Cases 1 and 3 exceeded the reference temperature of 167°C, indicating a high propagation likelihood, whereas Case 4 remained within 161?169°C, confirming the effectiveness of an optimized sprinkler layout. Despite limitations inherent to simulation-based analysis, the findings provide baseline evidence to support future research integrating detector response and combined smoke control?suppression system evaluations.