Earticle

This study aimed to develop biomass allometric equations of larch (Larix kaempferi) saplings to estimate carbon storage in early-stage plantations. In a Japanese larch plantation located in Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, we selected 12 six-year-old larch saplings with diameters at breast height (DBH) ranging from 1 cm to 6 cm in December 2023 and March 2024. Their height, crown width, and root collar diameter (RCD) were measured prior to harvesting the entire saplings, including their roots. The biomass estimation model based on RCD (r2＞0.99) demonstrated higher accuracy compared to the model based on DBH (r2＞0.84) for predicting the total biomass of larch saplings. In the early-stage larch plantation, the carbon stock of woody components, estimated using the biomass allometric equations developed in this study, was 1.58±0.12 t C ha-1. Among biomass distribution components, branches accounted for the largest proportion (37.0%), followed by stems (32.7%) and roots (30.3%). Crown width was strongly correlated with root biomass (r=0.93). These findings suggest that carbon stock estimates of sapling branches can substantially influence the overall carbon stock of early-stage plantations, highlighting the need to reassess previously underestimated carbon stocks in such plantations. The biomass allometric equations developed in this study significantly improve the accuracy of initial carbon stock and uptake estimations in reforested or restored areas with larch. Additionally, they provide valuable information for quantitative productivity assessments in early-stage plantations.

The Gran Chaco forest is the second-largest forest in South America after the Amazon forest. It has experienced some of the world's highest deforestation rates, with cattle ranching identified as the primary driver of deforestation in the Paraguayan region of the Chaco. The purpose of this paper is to estimate the costs and benefits of halting deforestation and determine if saving forests would be more profitable than cattle ranching in the Paraguayan Chaco. Data from 80 cattle ranches and national data were analyzed to find the opportunity cost of giving up cattle ranching in the Paraguayan Chaco, and forest valuation and project costs were estimated. Results show that the mean opportunity cost, based on a 30-year project scenario, is 10.82 $/tCO2. The opportunity cost of giving up cattle ranching falls in the low range of carbon prices in the voluntary carbon market, meaning that the profits from preserving forests, especially from selling carbon credits, can exceed the profits of cattle ranching. The overall annual benefits of halting deforestation far outweigh the costs when considering the opportunity cost of cattle ranching and forest preservation project transaction costs for the entire Paraguayan Chaco by at least 115 times. Halting deforestation can be a viable alternative for stakeholders and is important for policymakers to acknowledge.

As Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) concentration can vary among soils with various vegetation and land use types, it is crucial to comprehend how it is distributed throughout the soil profile when evaluating soil carbon storage. This study was conducted to determine the influence of tree variables on SOC in the soil profile of 0-10 cm, 10-20 cm, and 20-30 cm of four forest types; Lower Subtropical Mixed Hardwood Forest (LMHF), Chir Pine Forest (CPF), Upper Temperate Mixed Hardwood Forest (UMHF), and Oak Forest (OF) of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park of Kathmandu. For soil samples, at least eight replicates of soil each around 300 grams from each forest were extracted following the stratified random sampling method. The highest average bulk density (BD) was observed in the CPF (0.875 gm cm-3) and lowest in the OF (0.725 gm cm-3). The SOC concentration varied between 1.15% and 3.54%. The OF had highest SOC stock (73.058 tha-1) followed by the UMHF, LMHF, and CPF which were 64.862, 46.830, and 34.653 tha-1, respectively and the SOC stocks are significantly different (p=7.75e-08***) as we compare means between the forests. ANOVA test of Organic Carbon Concentration (OCC) between different layers of each forest type showed similar results having significant differences between layers for every forest type (p＜0.05). Tree variables from trees; average dbh, average height, and crown density all resulted in a statistically significant positive correlation with SOC indicating that if these variables are maximum, SOC tends to increase. It is expected that the research findings will be useful for further research in the field of carbon studies about the tree variables for the management of forest habitats for park managers and researchers.

After a past history of fire suppression, California’s forests face increased fire risk from the buildup of fuels. The objective of the study is to develop custom fuel models for the area and to determine whether fuel loads differ significantly by dominant species, and whether measured fuel loads differ from the closest standard fuel models. Measurements of fuel loads suggested that stands dominated by a sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) had significantly higher loads of fine fuels than ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Based on fire modeling, sugar pine may also show more severe fire behavior than ponderosa. Standard fuel models did not closely correspond to the custom fuel models in either fuel loads or predicted fire behavior, suggesting a need for further development of new fuel models. Existing fuel models fail to reflect the fuel loads measured in Lassen National Forest, and lead to different predictions of fire behavior. Evidence also suggests that fuel loads and fuel bed density differ based on species composition. This study also highlights the possible under-prediction bias found in many custom fuel models and models of crown fires. More detailed measurements of ladder fuels and crown characteristics are required for more accurate modeling of crown fire behavior.

The quick expansion of forest dieback in Horton Plains (HP), a cloud forest in Sri Lanka, is now a major concern. Lead (Pb) accumulated in the forest soil has been identified as one of the major culprits behind the forest dieback in HP. Natural geo-sorbents like biochar plays a vital role in remediating soils contaminated with heavy metals, via the adsorption heavy metals into sorption sites. This research focused on understanding the mid-term immobilization patterns of available Pb in HP soils treated with natural geo-sorbents. The treatments were: (T1) rubber-nut shell biochar (BRS), (T2) rice husk biochar (BHS), (T3) dead wood (from HP) biochar (HPS), and (T4) HP forest soil only (CS). Soil and dead wood were separately collected from HP and taken to a laboratory. All soil samples were spiked to show over 300 ppm of soil available Pb, geo-sorbents added where appropriate, and incubated at room temperature. HP soils were high in soil organic matter (SOM) (13.4%) with low pH (5.4). During the initial 3 months of the experiment, HPS recorded the lowest immobilization compared to BRS and BHS, with the latter having the highest immobilization. Yet, at the end of 18 months, all treatments showed the capacity to almost completely immobilize (∼96%) soil available Pb. As such, it can be concluded that (i) maintaining increased levels of SOM, and/or (ii) conditioning the soil with a natural geo-sorbent like biochar can help immobilize Pb in a forest with Ultisols.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are known to combine with NOx in the atmosphere, forming ozone, Secondary organic aerosols (SOA), and organic acids. VOCs are typically classified as anthropogenic (AVOCs) or biogenic (BVOCs). The Munmak Industrial Complex in Wonju is expected to feature a mix of AVOCs emitted from industrial activities and BVOCs from nearby forests. This study aimed to analyze the real-time emission characteristics of VOCs near the Munmak Industrial Complex in Wonju, Gangwon province, to assess VOCs concentration levels originating from both the surrounding forest and the industrial complex. Using PTR-ToF-MS, concentrations of benzene, toluene, isoprene, and pinene were measured and analyzed from July 3 to July 16, 2021. Results indicated that BVOCs accounted for 57% of the measured compounds, indicating a significant proportion. Notably, isoprene concentration displayed a strong positive correlation with temperature (r=0.78). Toluene showed a recurring increase at night, while pinene showed a decrease during the day and an increase at night. Average concentrations of benzene and toluene were 0.11 ppb and 0.87 ppb, respectively, which were significantly lower than levels reported in other large industrial areas, roadsides, and landfills. However, as other studies often rely on solid sorbent tubes or tedlar bags in accordance with atmospheric pollution process standards, they do not provide continuous measurements. This study highlights the necessity of real-time VOC monitoring for effective VOC management and provides fundamental data for developing air quality improvement measures in small and medium-sized cities.

Irregular shelterwood silviculture practice in Sal (Shorea robusta C.F. Gaertn.) forest led to a rapid alteration in the dynamics of terai community forests (CFs). However, the waves of timber-based forest income overlooked the changing investment patterns of these forests. In this paper, we analyze patterns of income, expenditure, and their determinants of CFs that implemented the new timber-based silvicultural approach. For this, we surveyed 26 purposively sampled Community Forestry User Groups (CFUGs), complemented by focus group discussions with forestry officials and forest users (n=10), and key informant interview (n=26). We observed that CFUG three-year average annual income accounts NRs 6,411,423 (1 US$=NRs 133.36) where timber is the key source, comprising 86% of total forest income followed by user contribution (4%). Overall, 42% of the CFUG income is invested in forest management and 20% in community development while administration, interest/donation/prize, pro-poor activities and training receive 17%, 9%, 9%, and 3% respectively. The investment in forest development, community development, and livelihood enhancement activities of CFUG income are also highly skewed based on the income size of CF. Equally, socio-economic factors such as the number of households, women proportion in executive committee, annual discussion, and knowledge on scientific forest management (ScFM) have realigned the investment pattern of ScFM implemented CFs.

This study aims to analyze the current state of South Korea’s ODA businesses in the environmental field in countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and propose plans to expand its humanitarian ODA businesses reflecting the nature of protecting the environment. For these purposes, the study compared the statistical data of ODA businesses that was accumulated for many years and the reports on Latin America and the field of the environment and analyzed advanced overseas cases and expert interviews, identifying what should be improved in business development, cooperation approach, and financing to expand ODA businesses in the environmental field. The findings show that South Korea has a very low percentage of ODA businesses in the environmental field for Latin American countries and needs in-depth business development. South Korea should identify and implement a business from the perspective of development customized at the local level when pushing forward an assistance business in the environmental field for Latin American countries.

Traditional landscape construction primarily focuses on design and planning, with limited technological advancements in construction and maintenance. This study introduces Landscape Engineering, an approach that integrates modularization, ICT-based maintenance, drones, and carbon-neutral strategies to enhance efficiency and sustainability. Using literature review, case studies, and comparative analysis, this study evaluates the impact of these technologies on reducing material waste, optimizing resource use, and lowering carbon emissions. The findings highlight that modular construction shortens project timelines, ICT improves real-time monitoring, and drones enhance precision in maintenance. To promote sustainable landscape construction, policy support and standardized regulations are essential. This research contributes to advancing carbon-neutral and technology-driven landscape construction for future development.

This study aimed to identify the optimal location for a landscape tree nursery complex as a rural convergence industry district in Chuncheon city. By reviewing the basic requirements for rural convergence industry districts and the conditions for landscape tree cultivation, GIS analysis and land use data were utilized to identify suitable areas. As a result, four candidate sites were selected, and their land use, accessibility, surrounding infrastructure, and natural environment were comprehensively analyzed. Ultimately, Sonamiseom Island, Chuncheon city, was identified as the most suitable site. This study highlights the potential of integrating landscape tree nurseries with rural convergence industry districts to enhance the economic and environmental value of rural areas. By employing GIS-based scientific analysis, this research provides an objective evaluation of site suitability, offering foundational data for rural spatial planning and policy development. However, the study has limitations, as it relied primarily on internet maps and public datasets, with limited field surveys and economic feasibility assessments. Future research should incorporate in-depth field investigations and stakeholder engagement to strengthen the practical applicability of the proposed site. Additionally, quantitative analyses of the economic and environmental impacts of establishing a landscape tree nursery complex would further validate its feasibility.

Balanites aegyptiaca, a highly significant fruit-bearing tree, possesses substantial health and medicinal benefits. The species is in a state of alarming decline resulting from overexploitation and habitat destruction. There is a deficiency of information on the degree of variation in the traits of this species, which is essential for developing effective conservation and improvement plans. This research aimed to assess the degree and distribution of variation in the characteristics of fruits, nuts, kernels, and leaves among the B. aegyptiaca population. Eight sources of natural distribution of the species were identified for trait assessment. Fruit thickness (FTH cm), fruit width (FWD cm), pulp weight (PWG g), fruit weight (FWG g), fruit length (FL cm), leaf length, (LL cm), leaf width (LWD cm), leaf thickness (LTH cm), nut length (NL cm), nut weight (NWG g), nut length (NL cm), nut thickness (NTH cm) and kernel weight (KWG g) were assessed and subjected to ANOVA and correlation analysis. The coefficient of variation (CV%), Heritability (h2), and genetic gain (ΔG) among traits were computed. Significant variation was found in all fruit traits assessed. Variation was significant for the entire leaf trait except LTH. NL, NTH KWG, and PWG vary significantly among sources, while NWD and NWG did not vary significantly among sources. Both strong and weak relationships among traits were found. The level of h2 among traits was highest in NTH (0.90) and least in NWD (0.06). ΔG was highest in KWG (14.47) and least in NWD (2.46). FWG, PWG, LWD, and NWG had CVs of 29.68, 37.07, 40.20 and 27.76, respectively. High and significant variations in B. aegyptiaca traits among the sources and significant positive correlation among traits are indications that the selection of multiple traits during improvement is feasible.

The increasing concern by the public regarding the environmental impacts associated with the utilization of synthetic preservatives continues to propel the search for environmental benign alternatives. Therefore, this study investigated the efficacy of Azadirachta indica and Kigelia africana leaves extracts in the protection of Triplochiton scleroxylon wood against fungal decay. The dried leaves of both plants were pulverized and six extracts were prepared: Aqueous Kigelia extract (KW), Ethanolic Kigelia extract (KA), Aqueous Azadirachta extract (AW), Ethanolic Azadirachta extract (AA), 1:1 KW to AW (KAW), 1:1 KA to AA (KAA) using distilled water and 100% ethanol as the diluent. T. scleroxylon blocks of dimension 2 cm×2 cm×6 cm were oven-dried and soaked in each extract for 24 hrs, with water (CW) and ethanol (CA) serving as control. Parameters observed include extract yield, colour changes, extract absorption and retention. The treated woods were inoculated with the fungi Pleurotus ostreatus (white rot) and Aspergillus niger (brown rot) for 12 weeks after which their weight loss was determined. Data analysis was conducted using ANOVA at 5% probability level. The extract yield ranged between 1.20%-8.73%. Wood samples treated with the AW extract had the highest absorption (31.26 kg/m3), while extract retention was highest in both KA and AA (3.7 kg/m3). Colour changes, particularly in the samples treated with the aqueous extracts, was noticeable. Highest weight loss was observed in both CA (43.81% and 46.45%) and CW (50.23% and 51.11%), while KW (9.33% and 12.01%) treated samples had the lowest weight loss after exposure to P. ostreatus and A. niger, respectively. Synergistic effect of both extracts was significant on the absorption, retention and weight loss of the wood samples exposed to fungi. It was concluded that KW extract is the most effective in protecting the wood against fungal decay.

One possible way to make agricultural systems more sustainable is by mimicking natural ecosystems. In this regard, syntropic agroforestry systems (SAS) are agroecosystems that, to some extent, replicate the structure and natural dynamics of tropical forests through the use of a large number of trees. This study aims to address the following question: are SAS microclimatically similar to tropical forests? To do so, we measured canopy coverage, relative air humidity, air temperature, soil temperature, and illuminance in a SAS and an adjacent tropical forest. The results revealed significantly higher air temperature and illuminance, along with lower relative air humidity, in the SAS compared to the tropical forest. These differences can likely be attributed to the lower number of tree strata and the specific tree configuration within the SAS compared to the more complex structure of the tropical forest. In conclusion, despite incorporating a large number of trees, SASs do not share common microclimatic conditions with tropical forests.