Earticle

이 연구의 목적은 한국어 이중모음 /ㅛ/가 다양한 언어학적 환경에서 어떠한 발음 변이 양상을 보이는지 밝히는 것이다. 특히 음성적 변이와 분포 범위의 연관성에 주목하여 /ㅛ/의 발음 양상을 논의하였다. 서울코퍼스의 여성 화자 10명의 발화에서 나타난 /ㅛ/의 운율적 위치(단음절, 어절 초, 어절 중, 어절 말)와 어휘 부류(내용어, 기능어)를 분석하였다. 각 환경에서 /ㅛ/의 출현 빈도를 파악한 결과, 운율적 위치에 따라 어휘 부류와 발음형 실현이 달라지는 양상을 보였다. 음향 분석을 통해 기능어에서 나타나는 /ㅛ/에서는 음성적 약화가 빈번하게 일어나는 것을 확인하였다. 어휘 부류는 /ㅛ/의 평균적인 음가를 달라지게 하지는 않았지만 개별 토큰의 분포 양상에서는 차이가 발견되었다. 이를 통해 언어학적 환경이 모음의 음성적 분포 양상에 영향을 미친다는 것을 알 수 있었다.

The purpose of this study is to determine how the Korean diphthong /jo/ shows phonetic variation in various linguistic environments. The pronunciation of /jo/ is discussed, focusing on the relationship between phonetic variation and the distribution range of vowels. The location in a word (monosyllable, word-initial, word-medial, word-final) and word class (content word, function word) were analyzed using the speech of 10 female speakers of the Seoul Corpus. As a result of determining the frequency of appearance of /jo/ in each environment, the pronunciation type and word class were affected by the location in a word. Frequent phonetic reduction was observed in the function word /jo/ in the acoustic analysis. The word class did not change the average phonetic values of /jo/, but changed the distribution of individual tokens. These results indicate that the linguistic environment affects the phonetic distribution of vowels.

Sleep is essential to brain function and mental health. Insomnia and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) are the two most common sleep disorders, and are major public health concerns. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) is a non-invasive method of quantifying neurometabolite concentrations. Therefore, ¹H-MRS studies on individuals with sleep disorders may enhance our understanding of the pathophysiology of these disorders. In this article, we reviewed ¹H-MRS studies in insomnia and OSA that reported changes in neurometabolite concentrations. Previous studies have consistently reported insomnia-related reductions in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels in the frontal and occipital regions, which suggest that changes in GABA are important to the etiology of insomnia. These results may support the hyperarousal theory that insomnia is associated with increased cognitive and physiological arousal. In addition, the severity of insomnia was associated with low glutamate and glutamine levels. Previous studies of OSA have consistently reported reduced N-acetylaspartate (NAA) levels in the frontal, parieto-occipital, and temporal regions. In addition, OSA was associated with increased myo-inositol levels. These results may provide evidence that intermittent hypoxia induced by OSA may result in neuronal damage in the brain, which can be related to neurocognitive dysfunction in patients with OSA. The current review summarizes findings related to neurochemical changes in insomnia and OSA. Future well-designed studies using ¹H-MRS have the potential to enhance our understanding of the pathophysiology of sleep disorders including insomnia and OSA.

The current study aims to investigate the effect of sociolinguistic factors such as region, generation and gender on the acoustic properties of Korean high and mid back vowels. We analyzed the vowel productions of one hundred twenty-eight subjects from the Korean Standard Speech Database, chosen to represent the different possible combinations of region, generation, and gender. The results reveal a chain-like shift in the back vowels. Unlike previous studies that have reported /o/-/u/ becoming closer as a result of a decreasing F1 in /o/, we found that the distance between the two vowels is decided more by the changing F2 in /u/. Also, the F2 of /u/ and /ɯ/, and the F2 of /ʌ/ and F1 of /o/ appear to move in tandem. Lastly, this study suggests that the reason the vowel changes differ across gender and regional dialects could be because they are all converging on to the standard Korean.

본고에서는 네트워크의 신뢰성에 영향을 미치는 요소들을 살펴보고, 네트워크 신뢰성을 보장하기 위한 여러 가지 회복기법들과 다계층 네트워크의 신뢰성을 최대화하기 위한 방법들을 소개한다. 이를 바탕으로 앞으로 네트워크 신뢰성 연구가 나아갈 방향에 대하여 고찰한다.

In order to investigate the effects of emitted-qi therapy(EQT) and cold water therapy(CWT) on the inhibition of the blood loss, the protein loss and the electrolyte loss in burned rats. The white blood cell, hematocrit and hemoglobin values in blood, and the total protein, albumin, globulin, $Na^+,\;Cl^-,\;K^+\;and\;Ca^{2+}$ values in serum were measured. The results were obtained as follows; 1. White blood cell count in blood was significantly increased in CWT group compared with control group. 2. Hematocrit value in bolld was significantly increase in EQT and CWT group compared with control group. 3. Hemoglobin value in blood was significantly increased in CWT group compared with control group. 4. Total protein value in serum was significantly increased in CWT group compared with control group. 5. Albumin value in serum was significantly increased in EQT and CWT group compared with control group. 6. Globulin value in serum tended to be increase in EQT and CWT group compared with control group, but it was not significant. 7. A/G ratio in serum was significantly increased in EQT and CWT group compared with contort group. 8. $Na^+$, value in serum was significantly increased in EQT and CWT group compared with ontrol group. 9. $K^+$, value in serum tended to be increased in EQT group compared with control group, but it was not significant. 10. $Cl^-$ value in serum was significantly increased in EQT and CWT group compared with control group. 11. $Ca^{2+}$ value in serum tended to be increased in EQT and CWT compared with control group, but it was not significant. According to the above results, the EQT and CWT inhibited the blood loss, the protein loss and the electrolyte loss. Therefore, it is considered that the EQT and CWT can be applied to the burn therapy.

본고는 경북 지역 청년층의 방언 태도와 표준어 사용 인식을 살피고자 하였다. 이를 위해 대구 지역 20대 대학생 38명을 대상으로 본인 및 동일 세대의 언어 인식과 부모 세대와의 차이에 대한 설문 조사를 실시하였다. 연구 결과, 경북 청년층은 타 방언권의 젊은 세대에 비해 현저히 높은 방언 사용률을 보였으며, 자기 방언에 대한 자부심과 긍정 인식이 매우 강한 것으로 나타났다. 주요 사용 방언형은 억양과 음높이 등 운율적 요소가 두드러졌는데, 특히 억양은 경북 방언의 세대 공통 특징이자 표준어화에 대한 저항성이 강한 요소였다. 반면 표준어 사용 수준은 상대적으로 낮았으며, 자신의 표준어가 수도권 화자의 표준어와 다르다고 인식하는 경향이 뚜렷하였다. 또한 미래의 방언 사용 전망에서 남성은 유지, 여성은 감소를 예상하는 성별 차이를 보였으나, 대다수 응답자가 자신을 경북 방언 화자로 규정함으로써 지역 방언에 근거한 언어적 정체성을 확고히 유지하고 있음을 보여주었다. 본 연구는 표준어 확산 속에서도 지역 청년층이 보이는 방언 인식의 특이성과 정체성 지속 양상을 실증적으로 제시했다는 점에서 의의가 있다.

This study aims to examine the dialect attitudes and perceptions of standard language use among young adults in the Gyeongbuk region. To this end, a survey was conducted among 38 university students in their 20s born and raised in the Daegu area, focusing on their perceptions of their own and their generation’s use of dialect and standard language, as well as perceived differences from the older generation. The results revealed that young speakers in Gyeongbuk showed a markedly higher rate of dialect use and a much stronger positive attitude toward their local dialect compared to those in other dialect regions. The primary dialectal features observed were prosodic elements such as intonation and pitch; notably, intonation emerged as a cross-generational feature of the Gyeongsang dialect that shows strong resistance to standardization. In contrast, their perceived level of standard language use was relatively low, and participants strongly perceived their own standard speech as distinct from that of speakers in the Seoul area. Regarding future dialect use, a notable gender difference was observed: while male respondents expected to maintain their current dialect use, females anticipated a decrease due to social and professional factors. Nevertheless, a large proportion of respondents identified themselves as Gyeongbuk dialect speakers, indicating a firm linguistic identity rooted in their regional speech. This study contributes to empirically clarifying the persistence of dialect awareness and linguistic identity among local youth even amid the accelerating spread of standard language.

This study aims to investigate how pauses function as prosodic cues in signaling utterance-final boundaries. A perception experiment was conducted in which listeners were asked to indicate the point at which they believed the speaker’s utterance had ended. The auditory stimuli were constructed by systematically manipulating both the location and duration of pauses within a sentence. The results showed that both response times and response rates varied depending on pause location and duration. Pauses following sentence-final endings led to faster and more frequent responses, while those after subjects or modifiers elicited slower and less consistent responses. Longer pauses increased the likelihood of finality judgments more than shorter ones, although even short pauses had a stronger effect than no-pause conditions. Overall, these findings demonstrate that both structural position and pause duration play key roles in finality judgments. They provide empirical evidence that pauses serve as important prosodic cues in perceiving utterance-final boundaries.

이 연구는 한국어 학습자의 말하기에서 나타나는 평균적인 특징을 토대로 말하기 자동 채점에서 활용할 수 있는 유창성 평가의 채점 자질을 설정하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 방법: 유창성을 구성하는 요인을 언어적 형식과 관련된 요소로만 국한하여 발화 길이(발화 지속 시간, 발화 시간 격차), 발화 속도(말 속도, 조음 속도), 끊어 말하기(휴지 빈도, 휴지 길이, 휴지 길이 격차)를 대규모 한국어 학습자 말뭉치를 활용하여 측정하였다. 결과: 발화 길이에서 발화 시간 격차는 숙달도 간에 큰 차이를 보이지 않았으며, 발화 지속 시간은 숙달도가 높아질수록 길어지는 양상을 보였다. 발화 속도에서 말 속도와 조음 속도 모두 숙달도가 높아질수록 증가하는 양상을 보였다. 끊어 말하기에서 휴지 빈도는 숙달도 간에 유의한 차이가 없었으며, 휴지 길이는 숙달도가 높아질수록 유의하게 짧아지는 양상을 보였고, 휴지 격차는 1급과 6급이 다른 급과 유의한 차이를 보였다. 결론: 발화 지속 시간, 말 속도, 휴지 길이는 숙달도를 평가하는 유창성 채점 자질로 주요하게 활용할 수 있으며, 휴지 길이 격차는 1급과 6급을 구분하는 보조적인 자질로 활용할 수 있다.

Purpose: This study aims to establish scoring features for assessing speaking fluency in automated Korean speaking evaluations by identifying average characteristics of Korean language learners’ spoken production. Methods: Speaking fluency-related factors were limited to elements associated with linguistic form and measured using a large-scale Korean learner spoken corpus. The examined variables included utterance length(utterance duration, utterance time gap), speech rate(speaking rate, articulation rate), and pause -related features(pause frequency, pause duration, pause duration gap). Results: In terms of utterance length, the utterance time gap did not show significant differences across proficiency levels, whereas utterance duration tended to increase with higher proficiency. Both speech rate and articulation rate increased as proficiency improved. Among pause-related features, pause frequency showed no significant differences across levels. However, pause duration significantly decreased with proficiency, and pause duration gap showed notable differences particularly between beginner(Level 1) and advanced learners(Level 6). Conclusion: Utterance duration, speech rate, and pause duration can serve as core speaking fluency features for proficiency assessment, while pause duration gap may be used as a supplementary feature to distinguish between beginner and advanced learners.

이 연구는 전북 지역 20대 대학생을 대상으로 방언과 표준어 사용에 대한 태도를 조사함으로써 방언 사용과 표준어 사용, 그리고 방언 정체성을 심층적으로 파악하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 전북 지역에서 나고 자란 국어/언어 전공 대학생 37명을 대상으로 대면 설문조사를 실시하였으며, 본인의 방언과 표준어 태도를 비롯하여 동일 세대와 부모 세대의 방언 사용에 대한 인식도 함께 살펴보았다. 연구 결과, 전북 지역의 젊은 세대는 자신의 방언 사용량이 적다고 생각하면서도 방언에 대한 긍정적 태도를 보였다. 친밀하고 동일 방언을 공유한 상대와 대화할 때 방언 사용이 증가한다고 인식하였으며, 방언형 중에는 어미를 주로 사용한다고 보았다. 동일 세대는 자신과 마찬가지로 방언을 잘 사용하지 않지만, 부모 세대는 본인보다 방언을 더 많이 사용한다고 인식하였다. 한편, 본인의 표준어 사용량은 많은 편이며 특히 공식적 상황에서 사용이 증가하고, 주로 사용하는 표준어 유형은 단어라고 응답하였다. 본고에서는 이처럼 세분화된 설문조사를 통해 전북 지역 젊은 세대가 방언과 표준어에 대해 가지고 있는 복합적인 태도를 밝혔다는 의의를 지닌다.

This study aims to deeply understand the use of dialects, standard language, and dialect identity by investigating the attitudes toward dialect and standard language usage among university students in their 20s in the Jeonbuk region. A face-to-face survey was conducted with 37 university students majoring in language-related fields who were born and raised in the Jeonbuk area. The survey examined their attitudes toward their own dialect and standard language, as well as perceptions of dialect use among their peers and parents. The results revealed that young people in Jeonbuk perceive their dialect usage as relatively low, yet maintain a positive attitude toward the dialect. Dialect usage increases when conversing with close individuals who share the same dialect, especially with noticeable awareness of grammatical morphemes. While they believe their peers also use dialects infrequently, they perceive the parent generation as using dialects more frequently. In contrast, they consider their use of standard language to be relatively high, particularly in formal settings, with vocabulary being the most commonly used element of the standard language. This study explores the complex attitudes of the young generation in the Jeonbuk region toward dialect and standard language through this detailed survey, highlighting its significance.

This study aims to propose design elements to help develop automated scoring models in Korean speaking assessment. In language learning, automated scoring refers to the use of computers to assess and score language skills. Automated scoring has the advantage of reducing the burden on raters and enabling more reliable assessment and faster feedback. This study examined the current state of research on automated scoring for Korean speaking assessments, as well as the current situation in automated scoring for English speaking assessments. Based on this analysis, this study proposes several design elements for developing an automated scoring model for speaking assessments, including the purpose and type of evaluation, evaluation construct and scoring features, scoring scale, application type, task type, and system type. Furthermore, it argues that the development of such a model should comprehensively and specifically consider these factors. This study is expected to contribute to the development of an automated scoring model in Korean speaking assessment with validity, reliability, and feasibility.

본 연구에서는 2인 메신저 대화 자료를 기반으로, 종결의 기능으로 사용된 명사형 전성 어미 {-음}의 사용 양상을 검토하고 그 사용에 영향을 미치는 요인이 무엇인지를 밝히고자 하였다. 이를 위해 국립국어원에서 구축한 <맞춤법 교정 말뭉치(2022)>를 활용하였으며, 연령, 성별, 화자 간 관계 유형, 친밀도, 연락 빈도에 따라 {-음} 종결의 사용 실태를 분석하였다. 그 결과, 본 연구에서 고려한 언어 외적 요인들은 모두 종결의 {-음} 사용에 유의미한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 30대 이하의 젊은 화자일수록, 남성일수록, 그리고 대화 상대와 친밀하고 수평적인 관계일수록 {-음}으로 문장을 종결하는 경우가 많았다. 다만, 그 외의 상황에서도 두루 사용되고 있어 통신 언어에서 {-음} 종결이 보편적인 종결 방식임을 확인하였다. 본 연구는 이렇듯 대규모 말뭉치를 이용한 정량적 분석을 통해 통신 언어에서 {-음} 종결의 특성을 다각적으로 논의하였다는 점에서 의의를 갖는다.

This study examines the usage patterns of the nominalizing ending {-eum} as a function of closure in two-person messenger conversations and identifies factors influencing its usage. The research utilized the 2022 Normalized Spelling Corpus compiled by the National Institute of the Korean Language, analyzing usage patterns based on age, gender, relationship type, familiarity, and contact frequency. Results indicate that all extralinguistic factors considered in this study significantly impact the use of {-eum} for sentence closure. Younger speakers (under 30), male speakers, and individuals in close and egalitarian relationships were more likely to end sentences with {-eum}. However, the ending was also widely used across other contexts, confirming {-eum} closure as a common form in online communication. This study is significant in its multifaceted exploration of {-eum} closure characteristics within digital language, achieved through quantitative analysis of a large-scale corpus.

쓰기 자동 채점은 학습자가 작성한 텍스트를 분석하여 자동으로 점수를 부여하는 기술이다. 한국어 쓰기 평가에서 자동 채점 기술에 대한 연구는 2020년대에 시작되었으나 아직 초기 단계에 머물러 있다. 이 연구는 한국어 쓰기 자동 채점 시스템 개발을 위한 기초 연구이다. 개발을 위해 가장 먼저 해야 할 일은 앞선 사례를 검토하고 분석하는 과정일 것이다. 이에 이 연구에서는 국외 언어 평가에서 상용화된 쓰기 자동 채점 시스템(C-rater, E-rater, IntelliMetric, IEA, PEG, BETSY)의 특징을 분석하고 국내 교과교육의 서답형 문항 자동 채점 시스템 개발 연구를 검토하였다. 이를 바탕으로 한국어 쓰기 자동 채점 시스템 개발에서 고려해야 할 내용을 다음과 같이 제안하였다. 첫째, 자동 채점에서 기계와 인간이 담당할 영역과 범위에 대한 계획이 마련되어야 한다. 둘째, 한국어 쓰기 특성을 반영한 채점 자질의 표준화가 필요하다. 셋째, 한국어 학습자의 언어를 효과적으로 처리할 수 있는 기술이 요구된다. 넷째, 대규모 숙달도 평가는 물론 형성 평가 및 자가 학습 등 교육 현장에서의 교사와 학습자가 실제적으로 활용할 수 있는 자동 채점 시스템이 개발되어야 한다. 마지막으로 답안의 언어 단위를 고려한 자동 채점 시스템을 개발해야 한다.

Automated Essay Scoring System(AES) is a technology that analyzes texts written by learners and automatically assigns scores. Research on automated scoring technology for Korean writing began in the 2020s, but it remains in its early stages. This study serves as foundational research for the development of an Automated Essay Scoring System for Korean writing. The initial step in the development process is to review and analyze previous cases. Accordingly, this study analyzes the characteristics of commercially available Automated Essay Scoring Systems used in international language assessments (C-rater, E-rater, IntelliMetric, IEA, PEG, BETSY) and reviews domestic research on the development of automated scoring systems for constructed-response items in educational contexts. Based on this analysis, the study proposes the following considerations for developing an Automated Essay Scoring System for Korean writing. First, a plan must be established to delineate the areas and scope managed by machines and humans in automated scoring. Second, it is necessary to standardize the scoring features that reflect the characteristics of Korean writing. Third, technologies that can effectively process the language of Korean learners are required. Fourth, an automated scoring system should be developed that can be practically used by teachers and learners in educational settings, not only for large-scale proficiency assessments but also for formative assessments and self-directed learning. Finally, a scoring system that considers the linguistic units of the responses needs to be developed.

Interlocutors naturally exchange turns of speech in everyday conversation. To investigate this, we conducted a study to determine how Korean listeners use syntactic and prosodic cues in turn?taking. A perception experiment was conducted in which Korean listeners listened to speech stimuli and judged the end of turn?taking units. The pattern of judging the end of turns appeared to differ depending on the manipulation of prosodic cues in the analysis of reaction times. The results demonstrated the necessity of prosodic cues. Thus, for a turn to be concluded, grammatical completion alone is insufficient and must be accompanied by prosodic completion.

이 연구의 목적은 한국어 화자들이 어두 경음화 현상에 대하여 가지고 있는 복합적인 언어 태도의 실체를 파악하는 것이다. 이를 위하여 어두 경음화가 실현된 음성을 들려주고 들리는 대로 받아쓰게 하는 지각 실험과 어두 경음화에 대한 설문 조사를 실시하였다. 실험 단어를 체언, 용언, 수식언으로 구분하여 지각 양상을 파악한 결과, 품사에 따른 차이는 관찰되지 않았다. 개별 어휘의 발음형에서 경음화가 얼마나 굳어졌는지와 표기 측면의 특성이 지각에 더 주요한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 경음 표기율에 따라 청자 그룹을 분류하여 살펴보았을 때, 경음 발음에 대한 민감도는 청자에 따라 큰 편차를 보였다. 또한 어떠한 언어 태도를 지니고 있는지에 따라 어두 경음화의 지각 양상이 달라지는 것을 확인하였다.

The purpose of this study is to understand the complex linguistic attitudes that Korean speakers have toward the phenomenon of word-initial tensification. A perception experiment was conducted by listening to speech as an indirect method, and a survey was conducted as a direct method. No differences in perception were observed between nouns, verbs, and modifiers. It was found that the degree of solidification in the pronunciation form of each vocabulary and the characteristics of the writing pattern had a greater impact on perception. Sensitivity to tensification showed great variation depending on the listener group. In addition, it was confirmed that the perception pattern differs depending on the linguistic attitude one has toward tensification.

이 연구는 운율 요인과 맥락이 관련될 때 한국어 청자들이 어휘 부류를 지각하는 양상을 탐구하는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 이를 위해 음성을 듣고 어휘 부류를 판단하게 하는 지각 실험을 32명의 청자를 대상으로 수행하였다. 그 결과, 청자들은 운율적 요인이 통제되었을 때 어휘 부류를 음성적으로 구분하지 못하였다. 이는 운율 정보 없이는 어휘 부류를 식별하는 것이 어렵다는 것을 의미하였다. 한편, 어휘 부류의 지각은 운율적 위치에 따라 달라지는 양상을 보였다. 청자들은 자극의 음성적 단서를 토대로 운율적 위치를 식별하고, 이를 통해 어휘 부류를 판단하였다. 마지막으로 어휘 부류 지각에 대한 맥락 효과가 관찰되었다. 주변 맥락이 주어지면 청자들은 어휘 부류를 더 잘 지각하였다. 이러한 맥락 효과는 운율적 위치에 따라 다르게 나타났다. 이를 통해 한국어 청자들의 어휘 부류 지각에 운율적 요인이 밀접한 상관성을 갖는다는 것을 알 수 있었다.

The purpose of this study was to explore the aspects in which Korean listeners perceive word class when prosodic factors and context are related. A perceptual experiment was conducted with 32 listeners to judge word class by listening to the sound stimuli. As a result, listeners could not phonetically distinguish word class when prosodic factors were controlled. This meant that it was difficult to identify word class without prosodic information. On the other hand, the perception of word class showed a different aspect depending on the prosodic position. Listeners identified prosodic position based on phonetic cues of stimuli and judged word class through this. Finally, a context effect on word class perception was observed. Given the surrounding context, listeners were more likely to perceive word class. This context effect appeared differently according to prosodic position. Overall, it was found that prosodic factors were closely related when Korean listeners perceived word class.

이 연구는 억양구 말이 발화의 지속을 표시하는 주요한 위치라는 점에 주목하여 발언권 유지‧전환에 따른 어말 장음화의 실현 양상을 관찰하고, 화자의 특성이 이에 미치는 영향을 파악하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 친밀한 2인의 화자가 대화한 음성 자료를 이용하여 화자의 성별 및 연령이 의사소통 상황에서 발화의 전개와 어말 장음화의 실현에 미치는 영향을 살펴보았다. 남성 연장자는 여성 연소자에 비하여 더 많은 발화량을 보였으며, 발화를 유지하는 비율 역시 높게 나타났다. 이러한 경향성은 두 화자 간 나이 차가 클수록 뚜렷하게 나타났다. 또한 어말 장음화가 발언권 유지에 기여하는 것을 확인할 수 있었으며 그 실현 양상은 화자의 성별과 연령에 따라 차이를 보였다. 여성 연소자는 발언권을 유지할 때와 전환할 때 장음화 비율의 차이가 크게 나타났으며, 지속시간도 더 길어서 어말 장음화를 더욱 적극적으로 활용하는 모습을 보였다. 이 결과는 화자의 연령 및 성별이 화자의 위계에 영향을 미치고, 발화 전략에 차이를 가져온다는 것을 의미하였다.

This study aimed to explore the floor maintenance function of the final lengthening and to understand the influence of the speaker’s characteristics on this, paying attention to the fact that the final lengthening phenomenon observed in IP is related to the floor maintenance strategy. For this purpose, the effect of gender and age of the speakers on the development of utterances and the realization of the final lengthening was investigated using conversation data between two speakers. Older male speakers occupied more utterance than younger female speakers and the frequency of maintaining the floor was also high when they started. This tendency became clearer as the age difference between the two speakers increased. The relationship between lengthening and maintaining the floor was confirmed, and the pattern of realization of the final lengthening differed according to the group of speakers. These results imply that the speaker’s age and gender affect the speaker’s status and bring about a difference in their utterance strategy.

The aim of this study is to find out how the colloquial written language reflects the oral features of the corresponding spoken language. For this purpose, phonological reduction found in messenger corpora has been analyzed in phoneme and syllable units and compared with that found in spoken language using a quantitative method. Some words show a similar reduction pattern as spoken language patterns. However, it is also observed that the weakening applies selectively or in a different direction than in spoken language. An unfamiliar form that does not appear in spoken language is also observed. To sum up, phonological reduction in messenger corpora is partly similar to that in spoken language, but it also has an independent aspect that is difficult to incorporate into the orality framework. This result implies that colloquial written language should be considered as an independent register.

This study aimed to investigate the characteristics of three different genres, including argumentative, expository, and narrative texts that were selected from high school Korean textbooks revised by the 2015 National Curriculum with Auto-Kohesion, a Korean text analysis tool. The indices used for the current study included basic measures (the number of words, the number of sentences, the average sentence length, the average word length), word frequency (word frequency for contents words and all words), lexical diversity (type-token ratio for content words), personal pronouns (the first person pronouns, the second person pronouns, the third person pronouns, all pronouns), connectives (causal, additive, and all connectives), syntactic complexity (the ratio of modifiers, the ratio of constituents), and reference cohesion measures. The analysis demonstrated that the argumentative and expository texts were not significantly different in all measures. However, the differences between the two genres versus narratives were substantial; a greater use of personal pronouns and lower frequency words as well as more words and sentences was identified in the narrative texts, whereas the argumentative and expository texts included the higher text cohesion and the sentence constituent ratio along with the longer average words and sentences. The argumentative texts have been shown to include more personal pronouns than the other two genres. The current study provides some implications for designing Korean textbooks and analyzing the characteristics of different genres.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive and effective neuromodulatory technique to modulate cortical activities by applying 1 to 2 milliamps electric current. The use of tDCS to enhance cognitive function such as executive function and memory has attracted much attention in recent years, and a lot of studies have been carried out to identify neural mechanisms underlying cognitive enhancement effects of tDCS. In this review, we discussed the previous neuroimaging studies on applications of tDCS for cognitive enhancement using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Previous tDCS studies for neurological or psychiatric conditions and elderly individuals suggested that cognitive enhancement effects of tDCS were associated with normalizing aberrant brain networks and activities related to pathophysiology. Moreover, tDCS-induced cognitive enhancement in healthy individuals was associated with functional changes in brain activations and network connectivity. Furthermore, cognitive enhancement effects of tDCS were varied depending on the neurological structure and functional characteristics between individuals. The current review may provide critical insights into functional activity and connectivity of the brain regarding cognitive enhancement effects of tDCS, which could give direction for further studies on identifying the specific neural mechanisms and clinical strategies of tDCS.

Vowel raising in Korean has been primarily treated as a phonological, categorical change. This study aims to show how the Korean connective suffix {-go} is realized in various environments, and propose a principle of vowel raising based on both acoustic and perceptual data. To that end, we used a corpus of spoken Korean to analyze the types of syntactic constructions, the realization of prosodic boundaries (IP and PP), and the types of boundary tone associated with {-go}. It was found that the vowel tends to be raised most frequently in utterance-final position, while in utterance-medial position the vowel was raised more when the syntactic and prosodic distance between {-go} and the following constituent was smaller. The results for boundary tone also showed a correlation between vowel raising and the discourse function of the boundary tone. In conclusion, we propose that vowel raising is not simply an optional phenomenon, but rather a type of phonetic reduction related to the comprehension of the following constituent.