Earticle

정지용 시에서의 가톨릭시즘은 많은 논란에도 불구하고 그 나름의 내적 동기와 외적 필연 에 의해 제기된 것이었다. 그는 가부장제적인 질서로부터 자유롭지 못한 존재였고, 또 모더니 스트였는데, 그 대항담론으로 모색된 것이 고향담론이었다. 그러나 그에게 있어 고향이란 궁 극에 있어 합일될 수 없는 이타적 존재였으며, 결국 그는 고향 담론을 포기하게 된다. 이는 장소적 귀속성이 근대의 제반 양상을 뛰어넘을 수 없는 근거를 보여준 것이거니와 그는 이를 계기로 또하나의 반근대적 담론을 찾아나서게 된다. 그 반담론 가운데 하나가 가톨릭시즘이다. 내적 필연과 외적 계기에 의해서 만난 그의 가 톨릭시즘은 고향이 빠져나간 자리를 메울수 있었다. 이러한 열망들은 때마침 창간된 잡지 󰡔가 톨릭청년󰡕과 결부 되면서 더욱 가열찬 양상을 띠게 된다. 가톨릭시즘이 자리 잡는데 있어 가설적 성공조차 거부된 이유에는 정지용의 시적 수준이 라든가 종교의 전통 부재가 가장 큰 계기가 된다. 정지용의 그러한 자의식적 한계는 의욕적으 로 출발한 역사로의 여행에서도 크게 달라지지 않는다. 종교를 바탕으로 한 전통다운 전통, 아름다운 역사적 공간이 구현된 적이 없는 현실에서 종교의 이상적인 모습을 찾아내기는 매 우 어려운 일 이었기 때문이다. 그럼에도 정지용은 엘리어트가 그러했던 것처럼 역사로의 과 감한 여행을 떠나지만, 그 역사의 도정에서 만난 김대건 신부를 지나치게 신격화하거나 이상 화시켰다. 그리하여 김대건 신부를 지극히 이상화시켜서 일반 대중이나 인간의 보편적 감수성 으로부터 완벽하게 분리시켜버린다. 이러한 한계야말로 정지용의 시전 수준이며, 가톨릭적 신 성이 대단히 미약한 한국시의 한계가 아닐 수 없을 것이다.

This paper studied the features of Catholicism and tradition senses of Jeong Ji Young and analyzes the modern poetry world of Jeong Ji Young. It is times pointed out that Catholicism and divine nature of Jeong Ji Young was features of modern korean poetry. His Catholicism and divine nature of Jeong Ji Young has been involved Catholicism and desire's features the first stage modern korean poetry. That is native place, Catholicism, desire and eternal in first period. Especially it restarted experience of native place, history, Catholicism with that period. The poetical investigation of Jeong Ji Young, as we pointed out in his text, embodies a start of modern korean poetry, especially in the between Catholicism and tradition senses. That is to say, his Catholicism and tradition senses, have the opportunity to understand in his first poetry. The Catholicism and tradition, united world and recover is the important concept the first stage modern korean poetry. This work is the first stage departing from Catholicism and desire. That is the theme of the first period poetry of Jeong Ji Young

조선 천주교의 발원지에서 태어나 일생을 보냈던 이항로는 가학(家學)의 영향을 받아 천주교의 확산에 대해 남다른 비판의식을 지니게 되었고, 저술활동 초기부터 천주교 비판에 역점을 두었다. 그는 처음에는 ‘도덕-공장(工匠; 기술)’의 구도를 택하여, 유학은 도덕이고 천주교는 공장에 해당된다고 보아 유학을 높이려고 하였으나, ‘도덕-공장’ 구도의 기원은 도가(道家)와 맞닿아 있기 때문에 기술이 도덕으로 나아갈 통로로 여겨질 수 있었고, 그에 따라 ‘도덕’도 도가적인 것으로 오인될 우려가 있었다. 이항로는 한유의 입론을 차용하여 도덕과 유가적 핵심 덕목을 결합시키는 한편, 알레니의 『만물진원』에 대한 비판을 통해 ‘공장(기술)’을 ‘형기(形氣)’로 대체한다. 그리하여 그의 만년 저술인 『벽사록변』은 ‘도덕-형기’ 구도를 정립하고 이에 따라 천주교가 비판된다. 아울러 리(理)는 무위(無爲)적 존재라는 천주교 측의 비판에 대하여, 이항로는 성리학적 상제관이라고 할 만한 것을 내세웠다. 이러한 ‘도덕-형기’의 구도를 뒷받침하는 것은 도기(道器)적 존재론으로서 이것은 이기론으로부터 다소 이탈한 것이었으며, 또한 도덕․인의의 절대화로 인해 인의예지(仁義禮智)를 제외한 성(誠) 등의 여타 유가적 규범의 정체성에 변화가 일어나게 되었다. 기존 연구는 위정척사 사상을 하나의 동일한 주체로 놓고 그것이 천주교와 외세에 대해 어떻게 반응하는지 보고자 했다면, 우리의 연구 결과는 이항로의 상제관과 도기론이 보여주듯이 천주교 비판 과정에서 이항로의 철학 체계도 일정한 변화를 겪었을 가능성이 크다는 것이다.

Yi Hang-No had a strong criticism against the spread of Catholicism. At first, he adopted the framework of ‘the Way and Virtue[道德] vs craft[工匠]’, and intended to raise the status of Confucianism by allocating it to ‘the Way and Virtue’ and Catholicism to ‘craft’. But, the framework of ‘the Way and the Virtue vs craft’ being trace back to the philosophy of Daoism[道家], ‘craft’ had the possibility of being regarded as the path for ‘the Way and Virtue’ and, in turn, ‘the Way and Virtue’ also could be misunderstood as Daoistic one. So, while Lee combined ‘the Way and Virtue’ with the key virtue of Confucianism by borrowing Han Yu’s theory of ‘the Way and Virtue', he replaced ‘craft’ with ‘Qi with forms[形氣]’ in the course of criticizing the claims of The True Origin of the World(『萬物眞原』) which had been written by Julius Aleni. Therefore he established the framework of ‘the Way and Virtue vs Qi with forms’ in his The Argument for Expelling Wickedness(『闢邪錄辨』) and criticized Catholicism according to it. Meanwhile, the framework of ‘the Way and the Virtue vs Qi with a form’ was supported by the ontology of ‘the Way and concrete things[道器]’, but the latter could be regarded as the deviating from the ontology of Li-Qi(理氣). And due to the attempting of absolutization of ‘the Way and Virtue’ and humanenessㆍrighteousness[仁義], the status of Confucian virtues excepting for 仁義禮智, for instance ‘Sincerity[誠]’, had been lowered in rank. Comparing to existing studies which looked upon the thoughts of ‘defending the righteousness and expelling the wickedness[衛正斥邪]’ as a identical subject and investigated its reaction against the catholicism and foreign power, this thesis showed us the possibility that Lee’s philosophy had experienced its transformation in the course of criticizing the catholicism, as his viewpoint of the god and the ontology of ‘the Way and concrete things’ revealed it.

이 논문은 강원도의 대표적인 지역 신문인 강원일보에 보도된 천주교 관련 기사 현황을 검토하고 이를 분석한 것이다. 강원일보는 1957년부터 지역 종합일간지의 역할을 하며 지역과 관련된 다양한 내용을 보도하고 있는 중요한 자료지만, 2002년 10월 11일 이전 신문은 홈페이지에서 확인이 불가하다. 이에 필자는 DB화가 되어있지 않은 강원일보 마이크로필름을 확인하여, 1958년부터 1989년까지 천주교 관련 기사를 수집 및 목록화하고 시대별 내용 별로 분류 분석하였다. 1958년부터 1989년까지 강원일보에 수록된 천주교 관련 기사는 총 573건이 며, 시대별로 구분하면 1950년대 7건, 1960년대 166건, 1970년대 149건, 1980 년대 251건이다. 내용별로 구분하면 가톨릭 일반 52건, 한국 가톨릭 일반 64건, 도내 종교 일반 75건, 교구 일반 199건, 사회 참여로 도식화된 지역과 함께하는 교회 137건 그리고 기타 46건이다. 573건의 기사 속에는 강원도 천주교회의 동향에 관한 기사뿐만 아니라, 1960년대 구호사업, 1970년대 산아제한과 가족계획, 1980년대 민주화운동 등 역사의 전개 과정에서 강원지역 천주교가 행한 역할 및 지역사회와 어떻게 공존하였는지를 살필 수 있는 기사도 많이 포함되어 있다.

This paper reviews and analyzes the current status of Catholicism-related articles reported in Gangwon-do's representative local newspaper, the Gangwon Ilbo. The Gangwon Ilbo has served as a regional comprehensive daily newspaper since 1957 and is an important source reporting various contents related to the region. Accordingly, I checked the microfilm of the Gangwon Ilbo, which was not made into a database, and collected and cataloged articles related to Catholicism from 1958 to 1989, and classified and analyzed them by content by age. From 1958 to 1989, there are a total of 573 articles related to Catholicism in the Gangwon Ilbo, and if classified by era, there are 7 articles in the 1950s, 166 articles in the 1960s, 149 articles in the 1970s, and 251 articles in the 1980s. By content, there are 52 general Catholic cases, 64 general Korean Catholic cases, 75 general religious cases in the province, 199 general cases of parishes, 137 cases of churches with areas schematized as social participation, and 46 other cases. Among the 573 articles, not only articles on the trend of the Catholic Church in Gangwon-do, but also the role of Catholicism in Gangwon-do and how it coexisted with the local community in the course of history, such as relief work in the 1960s, birth control and family planning in the 1970s, and the democratization movement in the 1980s, were included. There are also many articles you can look through.

문화는 특정 상황과 특정 환경에서 생겨나고 발전한다. 문화는 특정 언어와 특 정 분위기 안에서 출현하는 것이다. 또는 문화는 초점적으로 즉, 특정한 ‘초점’처럼 전개된다. 문화의 개별성은 역사의 맥락을 내포하며, 동아시아 근대문화의 경우 동 서교섭의 역사문화 맥락을 피할 수 없다. 강원도 천주교 역시 동서교섭사라는 세 계사적 구조와 지역의 개별성이 얽히고설킨 중층 규정성에 열려 있다. 강원도 천 주교에 대한 논의는 동서교섭사의 맥락에서 대두된 문화 개념인 문화보편주의와 문화상대주의의 이분법에서 벗어날 때 비로소 온전한 의미를 확보할 수 있다. 문 화보편주의는 ‘보편’에 대한 엄밀한 검증 없이 서구문화를 보편의 구현으로 전제하 는 문화패권주의의 관점이고 문화상대주의는 문화보편주의에 대한 대항담론으로 서 개별문화들의 정체성을 전제함으로써 여전히 문화보편주의의 그늘에 머무는 관점이다. 강원도 천주교 문화는 조선후기 천주교 수용과정의 역사성과 분리불가 능하며 강원도 천주교의 동서교섭 맥락은 지역문화 연구 및 활성화 방안과 관련하 여 중요한 과제를 부과한다. 본 연구는 강원도 지역문화의 주요 부분을 이루는 강 원도 천주교에 담긴 동서교섭사 맥락, 현재의 혼종성, 미래 과제를 다룬다.

This study explores the historical context of East-West encounters in Catholicism in Gangwon-do, which forms a major part of the local culture, including current hybridity and future related tasks. Cultures arise and develop in specific situations and environments, specifically within a particular language and atmosphere. Cultures also develop focally, as it were, as a specific focal point. The particularity of culture implies the context of history, and East Asian culture includes the historical context of East-West encounters. As a result, the Catholic Church in Gangwon-do is exposed to the multi-determinations intertwined with the world history of East-West encounters and local particularity. The discussion on Catholicism in Gangwon-do can bring about deeper understandings only when overcoming the dichotomous view between cultural universalism and cultural relativism, both concepts that emerged in the historical context of East-West encounters. Cultural universalism is a viewpoint from cultural hegemony that regards Western cultures as the realization of universality without rigorous examinations of universality. Meanwhile, cultural relativism is a perspective against cultural universalism, though, ironically, it is under the influence of its counterpart, by presupposing the identity of a particular culture. The Catholic culture in Gangwon-do is inseparable from the history of accepting Catholicism in the late Joseon Dynasty, and therefore, the contextual characteristics of East-West encounters in Catholicism in Gangwon-do are significant when it comes to the research of local culture and the ways to revitalize it.

본 연구는 1839년 기해박해에서 순교한 프랑스 사제 3인(앵베르, 모방, 샤스탕)과 1846년 순교한 김대건의 서한과 보고서를 중심으로 기해박해 에 이르는 과정을 연구하였다. 본 연구에서는 이 서한과 보고서를 조선의 관찬 자료와 비교하고 번역도 다시 검토하여 기존의 오류 몇 가지를 수정 하였다. 위의 서한과 보고서에 의하면 안동김씨 정권기 천주교 박해를 막은 1등 공신은 정권의 실세인 김유근이었으며, 대표적인 사례로는 1836~37년 ‘남응중 반란사건’이 천주교와 연계되는 것을 차단하였다. 김유근은 죽음 을 앞두고 천주교 세례[代洗]를 받았다고 전해지기도 하지만, 천주교에 대 한 그의 믿음이 돈독한 것은 아니라고 판단된다. 그는 왕실과 가문의 번성, 자신의 생명에 대한 기복, 그리고 북학과 서양 골동에 대한 호기심으로 천 주교에 호의적이었다. 1839년 기해박해 당시 김유근은 중병에 걸려 식물인간이 되었고, 김정 희와 조병현이 박해를 최소화하고자 노력하였다. 그러나 김유근이 부재한 조정의 권력투쟁에 밀려 조병현은 2개월 만에 형조판서를, 김정희는 3개 월 만에 형조참판을 각각 사임하였다. 김대건은 김정희를 천주교 “예비신 자”라고 언급했지만, 천주교에 대한 김정희의 호의는 김유근과 각별한 유 대, 북학과 서학에 대한 관심에서 비롯된 가변적이고 불안정한 것이었다.

This study investigates the events leading up to the 1839 Gihae Persecution, focusing on the letters and reports of three French missionaries—Imbert, Maubant, and Chastan—who were martyred in 1839, and Kim Dae-geon, who was martyred in 1846. By comparing these letters and reports with official Korean records, this study reexamines and corrects translation errors found in previous works. According to these letters and reports, Kim Yu-geun, a key figure in the Andong Kim clan government, played a central role in protecting Catholicism from persecution during his tenure. One notable example is his effort to prevent the Nam Eung-jung rebellion of 1836–37 from being linked to Catholicism. Although it is said that Kim Yu-geun received a Catholic baptism on his deathbed, his devotion to the faith seems uncertain. His favorable stance towards Catholicism appears to stem more from personal aspirations for the prosperity of the royal family and his clan, his desire for blessings regarding his own life, and his curiosity about Western relics and learning. During the 1839 Gihae Persecution, Kim Yu-geun fell into a coma due to illness, and efforts to mitigate the persecution were led by Kim Jeong-hui and Cho Byeong-hyeon. Despite their attempts, both were forced to resign from their official positions—Cho Byeong-hyeon after two months as the Minister of Justice (Hyeongjo Panseo) and Kim Jeong-hui after three months as Vice Minister of Justice (Hyeongjo Champan)—due to power struggles in the court following Kim Yugeun’s incapacitation. Although Kim Dae-geon referred to Kim Jeonghui as a "catechumen" of Catholicism, Kim Jeong-hui's sympathetic stance towards Catholicism seems to have been influenced by his close relationship with Kim Yu-geun, as well as his interest in both Northern and Western studies. However, his commitment to Catholicism was unstable and variable.

조선은 개국부터 성리학을 정학으로 삼고, 이를 이식하고 수호하기 위 해 여타의 사상을 사학으로 규정하여 억제하였다. 국가 질서에 심각한 위 협이 되지 않는다면, 사학을 저지른 죄인은 중형으로 다스리지 않고 교화 시키고자 했다. 그러나 서학은 국가 질서의 심각한 위협이었고, 이에 조선 은 서학을 사학으로 지칭하며 형정의 대상으로 삼았다. 배교하면 감형하 였지만 그렇지 않으면 중형으로 엄히 다스렸다. 지방에서는 관찰사나 절도사가 지시하면 영장과 수령이 사학죄인을 체 포하였다. 세 차례 심문 후 관찰사가 임금에게 계문하면, 조사와 결안 작성 에 대한 명령이 내려졌다. 이후 다시 차례로 심문을 하여 다짐을 받으면 결 안을 작성하여 보고하였다. 그리고 임금이 승인하면 사형을 집행하였다. 1866년 이후 영장은 포도청과 같이 형정의 종결까지 담당하는 실질적인 주체가 되었는데, 그 근거를 선참후계령과 전시에 적용하는 법령에 둔 것 으로 여겨진다.

The Joseon Dynasty set Neo-Confucianism to the right way from the beginning. And other ideas was set to the wrong way and control in order to implant and protect Neo-Confucianism. The western study was a serious threat to the order, so the Court called it the Sahak(邪學, study in the wrong way) and handled it for the penal administration. If the criminals negated Sahak, they were reduced their penalty. Otherwise, they got heavy penalties. At the provinces, Yeongjang(營將) and Sureong(守令) arrested the sahak criminals after Ganchalsa(觀察使) or Jeoldosa(節度使) instructed the arrest. The interrogations were thrice, and Ganchalsa inquired the admission for the penal administration from the king. Then, the king ordered to investigate it and to made out the document for the end of the penal administration. After 1866, Yeongjang became a practical subject in charge of the end of the penal administration. The basis would be on the laws applied to wartime and the ordinance to report the penal administration after execution.

본 연구는 공소의 기능, 시대적 특징과 함께 지역별 분포 현황에 대해 분석하고 한옥 공소의 규모, 기둥 간격 및 크기, 주출입구의 위치 등을 조사하여 구조적 특성을 분석한다. 첫째, 지역별 공소의 기둥 배열방식에는 큰 차이가 없다. 둘째, 기둥간격과 크기는 건립에 참여한 기술자가 구조 계산에 의한 기술적 지식이 아니라 경험적 지식에 의해 건립되었음을 알 수있다. 셋째, 공소 평면과 출입구의 위치의 상관성을 분석한 결과, 지역적 특징이 나타나지 않았다.

The result which is regional structural feature of wooden structure “Gong-So” through compare with correlationship ofcolumn array factor, correlationship of span and cross-sectional area, correlationship of floor plan shape and entrancearrangement. First, There is no significant difference in the column arrangement method of each region. Because of itbecame “Gong-So”, for the reason that movement of the cathedral, decrease of devotee and etc. Second, Correlationshipanalysis result of span and cross section area is say to it infers that the engineer build “Gong-So” as not technical knowledgein calculation, but empirical knowledge. Third, As a result of analyzing the correlation between the vacant plane and thelocation of the entrance, no regional characteristics appeared.

This study examines death in James Joyce’s Ulysses. Death in Ulysses implies the contexts of Irish history of colonial occupation, the Great Famine, and Irish nationalist martyrdom. Joyce describes Irish society enshrouded in death, juxtaposing the death of Stephen’s mother and Bloom’s family. The Irish are fixated upon Catholic mortuary culture, and are paralysed by the memories of the dead. The Irishman Stephen Dedalus is obsessed with his mother’s death. The death of Stephen’s mother, who is nothing more than a victim of the traumatic colonial conditions, represents Irish history. Joyce criticizes this through the character of Leopold Bloom, who has a modern perspective of death and accepts death as an affirmation of life. While the Irish are preoccupied with memories of death, Bloom thinks as a way to obtain the vitality to live. His attitude toward death is life-oriented. Ultimately, Joyce emphasizes the mutuality of life and death and presents the need for the Irish to rethink attitudes towards death under the colonial rule in the early twentieth century.

이 연구는 역사 교과서에서 인물을 서술하는 방식과 역사 인물을 통한 인물학습의 의미를 탐구한 것이 다. 이 연구를 통해 구체적으로 다음과 같은 내용으로 결론을 제시하고자 한다. 첫째, 인물학습의 목 적은 인물을 통해 과거 사람들이 살았던 자취를 되짚어봄으로써 역사를 바르게 이해함에 있다. 둘째, 역사 교과서가 어떤 방식으로 기술되었는가에 따라 학습자들에게 주는 영향이 매우 다르게 나타난다. 셋째, 역사를 보는 관점을 어떤 관점에서 바라볼 것인가에 따라 역사 교과서의 기술방식이 달라지고, 그에 관한 내용도 달라진다. 넷째, 역사를 왜 배우는가에 대한 문제에 관한 탐구를 통해, 역사교육의 목적을 이해할 수 있다. 다섯째, 역사 교과서에 실린 아담 샬의 발자취를 살펴보고 인물학습이 학습 자들에게 주는 가치관과 추체험, 감정이입과 같은 경험을 유추해 볼 수 있었다.

This study explores the method of describing characters in history textbooks and the meaning of character learning through historical figures. Through this study, we would like to present the following conclusions in detail. First, the purpose of character learning is to correctly understand history by looking back at the traces of people's lives in the past through characters. Second, the effect on learners is very different depending on how the history textbook is described. Third, the description method of the history textbook changes depending on the viewpoint from which to look at history, and the content of the history textbook is also different. It changes. Fourth, the purpose of history education can be understood through the inquiry into the question of why we learn history. Fifth, by examining the footsteps of Adam Shall in the history textbook, it was possible to infer the values and experiences that character learning gives to learners, such as recollection and empathy.

Roddy Doyle’s The Commitments deals with the lives of the Dublin working-class in the late 1980s. It shows the changing Irishness of the late 20th century, which has not been fully discussed. Until the mid-20th century, it had been considered that nationalism, Catholicism and rural areas represented Irishness. However, Irish society has been affected by globalization since the 1960s. In an urbanized, industrialized, and globalized society, urban workers, not farmers, most suitably represent Irishness. The process of Jimmy and his friends organizing and operating a soul music band describes not only the struggles of the working-class but Irish identity, which is different from patriarchal nationalism. Unlike nationalists, these young men are sensitive to changing trends and use ideology and politics to pursue their practical interests. In addition, Doyle’s narrative techniques show Ireland is breaking away from patriarchal authority.

우리 역사에서 타자의 부정성이라는 경험은 셀 수 없이 많다. 그 중 서로 다른 기원을 가진 동ㆍ서양의 사유 충돌이라는 경험, 즉 성리학으로 점철한 조선의 동양적 사유와 서학이라는 서양적 사유(천주교 신앙)의 조우가 가장 이질적이고 극적인 타자 경험이 될 수 있다. 이질적인 타자와의 만남은 한편으로는 오랫동안 유지해 왔던 고유한 문화에 균열과 붕괴를 일으키는 혼란을 초래하지만, 또 다른 한편으로는 기존 삶의 형태를 변형시켜 새로운 삶의 형태로 나아가 게 하는 원동력이 된다. 조선 후기 사회는 천주교의 교섭이라는 문화ㆍ사상의 교류를 통해 사회 적 균열과 붕괴의 혼란을 겪으며, 또 이전과 다른 사회 형태로 나아가는 과정을 맞이하게 된다. 본 연구는 서양에 관한 이해가 지식의 단계를 넘어 신앙운동으로 나아가게 되는 시기에 중점을 두고 조선 사회와 서학(천주교)의 교섭 과정을 살펴보았다. 이를 위해 첫째, 조선의 천주교 수용 과정을 바라보는 학계의 시각을 정리하고, 특히 그 과정에서 주어사 강학 모임이 차지하는 의미 를 살펴보았다. 둘째, 당시 천주교 수용 및 전파 과정에서 조선에서 읽혀졌던 서학서의 규모를 파악하고 당시 조선 유학자들의 수용 현상을 정리하였다. 셋째, 조선 후기 초기 천주교 공동체 형성 과정의 주역이었던 이벽의 학문 및 천주교 신앙 활동과 그의 저작에 관해서 살펴보았다. 다만, 기존 연구 성과들의 견해들을 수용하고 정리한 측면이 강하다.

In our history, there are countless experiences of other’s negativity. Among them, the experience of Eastern and Western conflicts of thought with different origins, that is, the encounter between thought of Joseon occupied by Neo-Confucianism and Western thought (Catholicism) of Seohak(Western studies) can be the most heterogeneous and dramatic experience of others. On the one hand, the encounter with disparate others causes confusion that causes cracks and collapses in the unique culture that has been maintained for a long time, but on the other hand, it transforms existing forms of life to move on to new forms of life. The late Joseon society experienced the chaos of social cracking and collapse through cultural and ideological exchanges called negotiations between Catholicism and Neo-Confucianism, and faced the process of moving forward into a different form of society than before. This study examined the negotiation process between Joseon society and the Western studies(Catholicism), focusing on the time when understanding of the West moves beyond the level of knowledge into the movement of faith. To this end, first, the academic circle's view of the process of accepting Catholicism in Joseon was summarized, and in particular, the meaning of Jueosa(走魚寺)’s study was examined. Second, during the process of accepting and spreading Catholicism at the time, the size of the books of Seohak, which were read in Joseon, was analyzed and the acceptance of those who studied in Joseon at that time was summarized. Third, the study of Lee Byeok's academic and Catholic faith activities and his writings, which were the leading roles in the formation of the Catholic community in the late Joseon Dynasty, was examined. However, there is a strong aspect of accepting and organizing the views of existing research achievements.

금대 이가환은 가학과 학파의 학문 성향에 영향을 받아 육경고학에 주의를 돌려, 고학적⋅박학적 학풍을 전개해 나갔다. 이러한 학풍은 성호학파 내에서 꽤 오랜 시간 연구하고 비판하면서 체화된 하나의 체계로서 금대에게 제공되었으며, 이를 기반으로 하여 서양의 과학 기술 및 종교에 보다 개방적이고 유연한 태도를 취할 수 있었다. 그의 지적 호기심은 유가의 기본 경전 뿐 아니라 역사, 제자백가, 불교, 도교, 의학, 군사 등 다양한 영역을 망라하는 것이었으며, 특히 명대의 고학적 성향으로 인해 산출된 저술들과 淸의 文物, 나아가 西洋의 學問에까지 열려 있었다. 그는 자연적 지식을 비롯한 제 학문 영역에서 博學을 추구하여 지식을 확장[博聞]하고 이를 발전시키는 것은 좋으나, 인간의 윤리규범에 있어서는 요약[約禮]해야 한다는 전형적인 유가 지식인의 면모를 보였다. 따라서 발전론적 시각에서 서양의 과학 기술을 높이 평가하고 이를 적극 수용하고자 하였으나, 서양 과학에 유기적으로 결합되어 정합적 체계를 이루고 있던 예수회의 천주학에는 회의적이었다. 그는 천주학과 서양의 과학 기술을 엄연히 분리해서 인식하고 있었으며, 리치의 보유론을 애초의 기획과는 다르게 뒤집어 독해하여, 리치의 ‘보유론’을 선진유학의 정신성⋅종교성에 서양의 기술을 ‘보’한다는 의미로 재해석했던 것이다. 전통적 유가의 修己治人의 구도로 보자면, 治人의 영역은 서양의 과학기술을 제왕학의 도구로서 수용하여 보완하고, 수기의 영역은 예수회가 원용하였던 선진유학의 ‘상제’ 개념을 부각시켜 이를 修身⋅事親⋅事天을 강화시키는 구도로 재배치한 것이다.

By analyzing the publications and activities of Geumdae Lee Gahwan (錦帶 李家煥), who left his mark in the history of ideology, politics, and literature during the late 18th century, and focusing on his tendency of Kohak(ancient learning) and acceptance of Seohak (Western learning), the present study aims to examine his epistemological foundation and the significance of his caution-the-world proposal to rescue the world to save people and awareness of problems in the history of ideology during the late Joseon period. Before he encountered Seohak books and Western tools in person, Geumdae was already affected more by the Seongho School’s academic orientation of Kohak. The foundation of Kohak was provided to Geumdae as an embodied system that had been researched and criticized within the Seongho School for a long time, and it allowed him to take a more open and flexible attitude towards the West’s science, technology, and religion. Geumdae’s intellectual curiosity covered not only basic classics in Confucianism but also other various fields including history, Hundred Schools of Thought, Buddhism, Taoism, medicine, and military. In particular, he was open to publications resulting from the tendency of Kohak in the Ming dynasty, products of civilization (文物) in the Qing (淸) dynasty, and academic learning (學問) in the West (西洋). He was a typical Confucian intellectual as he argued that while it is good to seek to learn various academic fields (博學) including natural knowledge, expand (博聞) and develop them, one should be mindful (約禮) of ethical norms. Hence, although he highly praised and actively accepted the West’s science and technology from the perspective of development, he was skeptical about the Jesuits’ Catholicism, which had established a system organically aligned with the West’s science. He perceived Catholicism and the West’s science and technology strictly apart from one another, flipped Ricci’s ‘Christianity complementary to Confucianism’ on its head, and reinterpreted that the West’s technology ‘complements’ primitive Confucianism’s spirituality and religious nature. In the framework of cultivating the self to govern people (修己治人) in traditional Confucianism, governing people (治人) is complemented by accepting the West’s science and technology as a tool in learning to become the ruler, and in cultivating the self, primitive Confucianism’s concept of ‘Shangdi,’ which was referenced by the Jesuits, is highlighted and realigned in a way that reinforces training oneself (修身), serving parents (事親), and serving Shangdi (事天). In other words, he separated Seohak, which was more advanced in science and technology, from religion, recognized it as a useful tool to complement Confucianism, and established a caution-the-world proposal to ‘rescue the world to save people.’

This study explores how James Joyce portrays death and the Irish Catholic funeral rituals. Joyce depicts the funeral of Paddy Dignam, an ordinary Dubliner, through the Jewish protagonist Leopold Bloom’s eyes in the “Hades” episode of Ulysses. Although Bloom is not accepted by the Irish community due to his Jewish lineage, he partakes in Dignam’s funeral with several Irish mourners. We experience scenes of the streets and the conversation within the carriage filtered through Bloom’s consciousness. He observes the funeral procession in terms of economy and is skeptical about the Catholic liturgy. His thoughts about death are contrasted with those of the Irish’s. Whereas Bloom obtains vital energy from death and even regards the corpse as a fertilizer to produce new life, for the Irish, death is a traumatic event and an irrevocable loss. Most of the Irish idealize death and readily fall into sentimentalism. Death as described in “Hades” is inextricably linked with Irish history. Joyce suggests historical events, such as the Great Famine and nationalist movements, in his portrayal of death. He implies the close relationship between Irish nationalism and Catholicism in relation to death. Therefore, death and the dead constantly control the living, although indirectly. In sum, Joyce criticizes this funeral culture and presents a vision of life through Bloom.

필리핀은 가장 많은 한국인 선교사들이 체류하고 있는 한국선교의 아주 중요한 교두보이다. 하지만 종교혼합주의와 오랜 식민지배를 경험한 필리핀에서의 선교는 아직까지도 여러 가지 어려움에 부딪혀있다. 특히 필리핀에 대한 부족한 역사적, 종교적 이해와 현재의 종교적 상황을 제대로 이해하지 못한 선교사역은 필리핀선교를 더욱 힘들게 하고 있다. 이에 대한 정확한 분석과 이해가 없다면 앞으로의 한국교회의 필리핀 선교사역의 대한 전망은 매우 어두울 것이다. 오늘날 필리핀의 중요한 종교적 상황의 현상들은 미국 개신교영향의 토착 오순절 교회의 약진으로 말미암아 필리핀에 가져온 현재의 세계화와 필리핀에서 전 세계로 특히 중동으로의 많은 노동자들의 유출로 인해 필리핀이민자들이나 해외 이주노동자들 중 많은 이들이 중동에 기독교의 뿌리를 뿌리고 있고, 이에 대한 이슬람 세계의 반발로 인해서 이슬람 세계에서는 전략적으로 그들 나라 안에서 일하고 있는 수백만의 필리핀 이민자들과 이주 노동자들을 향한 공격적인 전도를 추친 하고 있다. 그 결과로 말미암아 많은 노동자들이 바틱 이슬람교로 알려진 이슬람으로 개종하는 새로운 종교적 현상이 생겨났으며 남쪽 이슬람반군 지역만 국한되었던 필리핀의 모슬렘 세력권을 북쪽으로 까지 확대하고 있다. 결과적으로 이 논문의 연구자는 싱가포르대학의 로사리오 교수와 함께 앞으로 이러한 현상들을 주안대학원대학교와 공동으로 연구하기로 하였고, 가톨릭선교가 필리핀의 종교역사의 시작으로 알려진 단순한 기존정보의 오류들을 바로잡고 필리핀의 한국선교를 더욱 객관적으로 분석하고 돕기 위해서 공동으로 연구하기로 하였고, 앞으로도 이러한 연구들이 한국교회의 필리핀 선교에 기여 할 수 있기를 기대해본다.

Religious pluralism in the Philippines is oftentimes misconstrued as an oxymoron given the country’ predominant Catholic population --- the outcome of nearly 5 centuries of Spanish colonialism in which the motor of colonial administration was the Church and the Spanish friar. However, a historical view of religion in the Philippines yields two interesting patterns: 1) a globalization that preceded the nineteenth century, what Janet Abu-Lughod (1989) terms as a “world system that came into being” long before European hegemony, prompted a migration pattern characterized by the shift of maritime routes from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea and occasioned an outflow of traders and Sufi missionaries originating from the Hadramawt region in the 13th century and brought Islam to Southeast Asia including the Philippines; 2) a current globalization that brought American Protestantism to the Philippines, as well as labor outflow from the Philippines to the Middle East, creating a new phenomenon of religious conversion known as Balik Islam (Return to Islam) among migrant Filipinos. Emphasis of this paper is on the religious history and pluralism in the Philippines for effective Korea Church mission.

조선 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》의 주석은 주석목록본 《천주실의》의 주석과 비교해서 한마디로 매우 독창적인 측면이 강한 것이었다. 그리고 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》 주석에 자연히 언해자들 자신 나름대로의 독창적인 견해가 곁들여지게 됨으로써 매우 창작적인 측면이 내포되게 되었던 것으로 풀이된다. 조선 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》 주석의 특징은 주석 자체를 전체적으로 통합해서 정리해놓고 보면, 동일한 편 속에서조차도 동일한 어휘 및 용어에다가 중복되게 거듭 주석을 달았으며, 그래서 그 내용이 혹은 동일하게 혹은 유사하게 혹은 전혀 상이하게 되어 있다는 점이다. 이를 고려할 때 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》 언해자들이 한글로 언해하면서 상세한 주석을 붙이는 데에는 종래의 전통 유학에 익숙함이 반영되었을 뿐만이 아니라 양명학에 대한 관심도 반영되었을 것임이 자명하다. 그리고 이런 사상적인 면모가 곧 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》 주석의 내용상 가장 큰 특징이라고 하겠다. 이와 같은 조선 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》 주석이 지니고 있는 역사적 의의는 대략 4가지로 꼽을 수 있다. 첫째는 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》 주석으로 조선에서 ‘천주학’이 비로소 정립되는 결정적인 계기가 마련되었을 것이라는 점이다. 둘째는 이 ‘천주학’에 대한 궁구가 《천주실의》 원문 내용 자체에 명시되어 있는 강학의 방법을 통해 이루어졌으므로, 자연히 《텬쥬실의》 언해도 이 강학에 극력 참여한 학인들에 의해 행해졌고, 따라서 주석도 이들에 의해 분담되어 붙여졌을 것이라는 점이다. 셋째는 이렇듯이 ‘천주학’의 정립이 서양인 사제가 아닌 조선인 신자들에 의해 이루어졌기에, 언해필사본 《텬쥬실의》의 언해 및 주석도 조선인 신자 주도로 완성됨으로써 그것 자체가 한국천주교회사 속에 ‘자발성’ 구현이 이루어지는 관건이 되었을 것이라는 점이다. 그리고 넷째는 천주교 신자, 당시의 표현으로는 소위 ‘천주학쟁이’들의 천주학 교리에 대한 갈구를 해소시켜줌으로써 그 가르침에 따라 평등을 지향하는 남녀노소를 불문하고 양반·중인·평민·노비를 가릴 것 없이 모든 신분계층에서 ‘천주학’ 즉 천주교가 점차 확산되는 토대가 마련되었을 것이라는 점이다.

When we compare annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ienchu Shih-i (Ch'ŏnju Sirŭi, True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven) and its Annotated Catalog Version one by one, we could learn following differences: In terms of their quantity, the former has 314 annotations and the latter has just 149 and also that in terms of their traits, the former has detailed contents and terms for the original text, whereas the latter is no more than the brief summarization of the original text. Thus, in a word, we may say that compared with annotations of Annotated Catalog Version, annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i had strong tendency of originality. As a result of the analysis by establishing the patterns of annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i divided by three of ‘A':'explanation of vocabulary’, ‘B:term definition’, ‘C:phrase interpretation', the study learned that it had the tendency of B<C<A and when we calculated mathematical ratio, it turned out as A:B:C=48.1%:13.7%:38.2%≑3.51:1.00:2.79. It implies that annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i was naturally added with annotators' own points of view. When we integrated and summarized annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i itself in general, we learned that as its characteristics, the annotations of the same vocabularies and terms were often overlapped even in the same version, and consequently they had the identical, or similar or quite different contents. One of the typical examples of this tendency in annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i was that annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ienchu Shih-i treated 'Fair virtues' and 'Innate talent' repeatedly, apparently suggesting that traditional Confucianism might have been reflected along with their interest in Yangmingism when annotators of Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i provided detailed annotations while translating the original text. And this ideological aspect makes the largest characteristic of Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i. Historical significances of annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i can largely be summarized with four points. First, annotation on Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i could be a decisive turning point for the eventual establishment of 'Catholicism' in Joseon. Second, in-depth research on 'Catholicism' was carried out through learning methods as stipulated in the original text of T'ienchu Shih-i and naturally its translation was done by scholars actively using this learning methods, suggesting the annotation was conducted by themselves through division of work. Third, the firm establishment of ‘Catholicism’ in the country was accomplished by Korean believers not by the Western priests, and translation and annotation of Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i were also completed principally by Korean believers and as a result, such fact itself may have turned out as an important element materializing 'spontaneity' in the history of Korea's Catholic Church. Fourth, Korean Manuscript of T'ien-chu Shih-i, which was able to satisfy the desire of Korean Catholics towards Catholic doctrines, could provide the groundwork for Catholicism, namely Catholic Church to expand to diverse social classes including ordinary people regardless of the gender.

The Korean Catholic Church is usually considered to be a unique case in the whole history of Christianity, since its evangelization was supposedly started without foreign missionaries in the 1780s. The early Korean converts did indeed study Jesuit books and convert prior to the arrival of European priests in Chosŏn. This article is aimed at rethinking this topic beyond a Korea-centered perspective. More precisely, it focuses on Chosŏn envoys in Beijing through a comparison of Chinese and Korean historio- graphies. My main idea is to present Beijing as a “contact zone” where the Catholic experience of Chosŏn envoys was not just limited to visiting the four churches and their European missionaries. To be sure, Chosŏn officials also gained much knowledge about Catholicism through their encounters with Chinese literati and converts. Stated differently, this article explores several facets of the early encounters between Koreans and the Catholic faith. It demonstrates that these encounters and the birth of the Korean Church were not only linked to reform-minded Korean literati, but also to the complexity of Sino- Korean relations in Qing times and missionary methods used in Beijing (such as the conversion from top to bottom and the apostolate through books). This article more generally suggests a new research direction which explores the emergence of the Korean Catholic Church beyond national boundaries and on different scales.

Less than 30% of the South Korean population is Christian. Nevertheless, you cannot understand Korea’s modern religious culture unless you take into account the impact Christianity has had on how religion in general is defined today and on how modern religious communities, both Christian and non-Christian, express their beliefs and values. Over the last three centuries, due to the influence of Christianity, monotheism has become an important feature of Korea’s religious landscape. Moreover, Koreans are much more likely now than they were three centuries ago to form distinct communities composed of both clerics and laity who meet together on a regular basis to affirm their shared beliefs through communal ritual displays of those beliefs. In addition, Christianity has had impact on the secular realm as well. The increased visibility of women in the public sphere today compared to the cloistered lives most of them lived in the Chosŏn dynasty is partially the result of Christianity both providing more formal education for women and also assigning women important tasks outside of the home. Moreover, the vibrant democracy we see in South Korea today would not have come about if Christians had not insisted that the state should not interfere in religious affairs, and if Christian faith had not inspired so many to fight authoritarian governments. For all those reasons, it is no exaggeration to say that it is impossible to understand modern Korean history without taking into account the role Christianity has played in making Korea what it is today.

In the various assessments of Robert Lowell's poetry, I would suggest that Robert Lowell's religious conflict be an integral and consistent part of his works. As a young man, Lowell converted himself to Catholicism. But he retained an earlier interest in the religious philosophy and works of learned Puritans throughout his life as a poet and a man. In Lowell the two became reconciled. This religious motivation gave his style a determined boldness, supported by complexly disciplined language, symbol, and idea. In his poem Life Studies Lowell, expecting death, writes his own requiem while summing up his life's achievement. These strong as well as peculiar characteristics of religion in Lowell's poetry provide an overall and comprehensive vantage point from which readers of his poems better understand and appreciate his most complex psychology and his most intricate works of words. Therefore, Life Studies holds the key to a new understanding of Lowell and his poetry.

Many works have been written on the early Korean Catholic Church, but little has been said concerning the legal angle of the repression conducted by the Chosŏn state. Each anti-Christian campaign had a legal basis and was officially implemented in the frame of the legal system supported by the Great Ming Code, which was the penal code in use during the Chosŏn dynasty. The present study thus suggests that legal history may provide a suitable framework for the analysis of the anti-Christian campaigns of the nineteenth century and complement existing literature. I begin with investigating which laws were referred to during Catholic-related judicial cases and, then, I propose a few elements in order to explain why the government put such an emphasis on immediate decapitation, which was the gravest legal punishment. I also analyze how government officials enforced and misused the penal code to reach their objectives, and I conclude that laws, in the end, constituted an ideal means to justify the repression of Catholicism.

This study analyzes the acceptance of Catholicism, centered on the Holy Mother and the Son of God, in late Chosŏn Korea from the perspective that it caused a rift in society’s patriarchal family system, based on Neo-Confucianism. First, Catholicism resurrected the divine concept of “Mother,” which had diminished under patriarchy. In Chosŏn Korea a father’s position passed on to his son, and mothers were beings who rarely attained anything as mothers (or women). However, the Holy Mother disrupted society’s Neo-Confucian framework, and people accepted her as a sacred woman and mother possessing the power to save them from all difficulties. The Holy Mother made it possible for Jesus to be born and save people from their sins. Adherents believed that the work to save humankind is achieved through the inseparable relationship between the Holy Mother and the Son of God. Differing from “father-son” patriarchy, the Holy Mother and Jesus were a new “mother-son” concept. Under society’s patriarchal system, a mother giving birth to a child was a biological phenomenon, and people saw mothers as playing a passive role in the process. They believed it was the father who actually “gave birth” to children. Therefore, a mother having a positive standing in the birth of one like Jesus was a viewpoint separate from society’s patrilineal view. Catholic teachings came as a shock to those in Chosŏn society who could not recognize a new “Son of Heaven.” The concept of a brutally punished individual being the “Savior” was far removed from the image of a sage expounding the topic of flawless human behavior. Although Catholicism may not have accelerated the breakdown of patriarchy, it did create some ruptures, which eventually led to social changes.